Psychological & Sociological Mechanisms Linking Low SES & Antisocial Behavior Roberto Carlos Guerra Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Psychology Bradley A. White, Chair Lee D. Cooper Julie C. Dunsmore George Clum April 6th, 2018 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: Socioeconomic Status; Psychopathy; Antisocial Behavior Psychological & Sociological Mechanisms Linking Low SES & Antisocial Behavior Roberto Guerra ABSTRACT Antisocial behavior, both criminal and noncriminal, is a prominent yet poorly understood public health concern. Research on antisocial behavior typically focuses on either individual or environmental risk factors, rarely integrating risks across levels of analysis. Although low objective SES is clearly associated with antisocial behavior, the reasons why are unclear. Sociological theories suggest this relationship is due to neighborhood and environmental characteristics that create social disorganization and reduce informal social controls in the community. On the other hand, psychological theories suggest that elevated levels of psychological distress and psychopathic traits may influence individual risk for antisocial behavior. The purpose of this study was to integrate sociological and psychological models to examine how certain individual and environmental risk factors intersect in predicting antisocial behavior. In a demographically diverse adult male sample (N = 462), environmental (neighborhood distress) and individual (psychological distress) risk factors each mediated the SES – antisocial behavior relationship (as predicted), although findings depended on which definition of SES was used (objective versus subjective). In addition, psychopathic dimensions (specifically, meanness and disinhibition) were observed to exacerbate the effects of neighborhood and psychological distress on antisocial behavior, as hypothesized. Supplemental analyses also considered index variables comprising neighborhood disadvantage. Overall, results of this study help inform psychological and sociological theories of antisocial behavior, and may assist in clarifying potential neighborhood- and individual-level foci for interventions to prevent and reduce antisocial behavior in the community. GENERAL AUDIENCE ABSTRACT Roberto Guerra Antisocial behavior is an important public health concern. Low SES is linked to antisocial behavior, but the reasons why are unclear. Sociological theories suggest this relationship is due to a person’s neighborhood and environment, while psychological theories suggest this relationship is due to individual distress and psychopathy. The purpose of this study was to look across sociological and psychological models to examine how risk factors intersect to predict antisocial behavior. Results found environmental (neighborhood distress) and individual (psychological distress) risk factors each mediated (significantly explained) the SES – antisocial behavior relationship. In addition, psychopathy strengthened the effects of environmental and individual distress on antisocial behavior. Results of this study can be used to identify potential environmental and individual mechanisms that can be targeted to prevent and reduce antisocial behavior in the community. Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior Acknowledgments Several people were involved in helping me along this weird, windy, but worthwhile journey. I would first like to thank my advisor, Dr. Brad White, who has been a critical part of my development during my time at VT. His feedback has been essential in the development and completion of this dissertation project, as well as most major projects I have completed during my graduate training. The level of support and time he provided me during my time at VT was far and above what is expected of an average advisor, and is something I will always be thankful for. I will also be thankful for the type of mentorship that he has provided, which helped me develop into the researcher and scientist I am today. I would also like to thank my committee members, Drs. Julie Dunsmore, George Clum, and Lee Cooper for their guidance and suggestions in helping me develop and improve this study. Dr. Dunsmore was critical in providing different perspectives for me to consider during this study and other projects – perspectives that were necessary for these studies to succeed. Dr. Clum has provided the sort of mentorship as a clinician, supervisor, professor, and overall wonderful human being that will always stay with me as I progress through the field of psychology and through life. Special thanks to Dr. Cooper as a committee member, clinical supervisor, and DCT, for helping push me as a clinician and as a person, for providing support when things got difficult, and for helping me through the final hurdles of the program. Thank you to my labmates for their feedback and assistance during this project and during my time at VT. In particular, I would like to thank Maya Mohindroo, Ash Lee Manley, Denise Schmeitzel, and Matthew Kimmel for their assistance as undergraduate RAs on my dissertation, helping me with participant recruitment and payment of participants. A special thank you to Denise, who was critical in helping me with payment of participants and for being my eyes and ears while I was out of town. I would also like to thank Amber Turner and Caitlin Conner for their help as unofficial mentors and true friends – helping me learn what to do and not do as I navigated my way through the program. Along those same lines I would like to thank Haley Murphy, Rachel Miller-Slough, and Andrew Valdespino, whose friendship I will always cherish no matter where any of us are scattered across the country. iv Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior Finally, I would like to thank my family for providing so much support throughout my time in graduate school, as well as every other part of my life. I could not have achieved any of the successes that I have had in my life without my family right there along the way, helping me emotionally, spiritually, financially, and mentally. Specifically, I want to thank my brother – who has been the best role model a person could possibly ask for. And my mother – who is the most amazing person in my life, the best mom I could imagine, and the person I owe everything to. Te extraño papá, y les quiero tanto a todo mi familia - R v Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior Table of Contents Chapter 1- Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Socioeconomic Status and Antisocial Behavior …..…….………………………........3 1.2 Psychopathy & Antisocial Behavior..…...…………….………….……………….......6 1.3 The Role of Psychopathy in the Relationship between SES & Antisocial Behavior....10 1.4 Psychological Distress & Antisocial Behavior …..……..….….……….………........13 1.5 Current Study…..…….………………………..……………….……………..……...14 1.6 Hypotheses…..…….…………………………..……………………………………..15 Chapter 2- Methods………………………………………………………………………...…….19 2.1 Inclusion Criteria……...…………..…….….…….……..……………...…….…...…19 2.2 Participants……...……...……………….…………….……...…………………..….21 2.3 Procedure………………….……………………………………….…………….…..21 2.4 Measures……………………………….………………….………..………………..23 2.5 Data Screening and Analytic Procedure…………………………….……………….27 Chapter 3- Results……………………………………………………………………………..…30 3.1 Hypothesis 1………………..………………………………………...………………31 3.2 Hypothesis 2a………………...….……….…………………………..………………33 3.3 Hypothesis 2b……………….….……….……………………………………………36 3.4 Hypothesis 3a……………….………….…………………………….………………37 3.5 Hypothesis 3b……………….….……….………………...…………….……………38 Chapter 4- Discussion…………………………………………………………………...……….41 4.1 Neighborhood Disadvantage as a Mediator …………….……….…………………..43 4.2 Psychopathy Moderating Disadvantage – Antisocial Behavior Relationship.…….…45 vi Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior 4.3 Psychological Distress as a Mediator ……………….…………….………………....48 4.4 Psychopathy Moderating Psychological Distress - Antisocial Behavior Relationship..49 4.5 Secondary Analyses Examining Boldness as a Protective Factor……………………49 4.6 Strengths………………………….……………….……….…………………………51 4.7 Limitations, Future Directions, and Implications……………....….………......….…53 References………………………………………………………………………………….…….57 Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………….80 Figures……………………………………………………………………...…………………….88 Appendices………………………………………………………………………………..…….103 vii Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior List of Tables Table 1a – Sample Descriptive Statistics...……………………..…………..…….….....………..80 Table 1b – Sample Descriptive Statistics (continued)...………………………….….....………..81 Table 2 – SES Descriptive Statistics...………………………..…………….…….....….………..82 Table 3 – Zero-order Pearson Correlations among Study Variables…..…...……....…..………..83 Table 4a – Effects of Psychopathy, SES, and Race on Antisocial Behavior..…….…...…….…..84 Table 4b – Effects of Psychopathy, Subjective SES, and Race on Antisocial Behavior...............85 Table 5 – Effects of Psychopathy, Disadvantage, and Race on Antisocial Behavior………...….86 Table 6 – Effects of Psychopathy, Psychological Distress, and Race on Antisocial Behavior.…87 viii Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior List of Figures Figure 1 – Hypothesized model for Hypothesis 1...………………….…...……………………..88 Figure 2 – Hypothesized model for Hypothesis 2a…….………...…………….……….………..89 Figure 3 – Hypothesized model for Hypothesis 2b……..………...….………………..….……..90 Figure 4 – Hypothesized model for Hypothesis 3a…….………...…………….……….………..91 Figure 5 – Hypothesized model for Hypothesis 3b……..………...………………..…..….…….92 Figure 6a – Mediation of SES and ASB by Neighborhood Disadvantage…..……….…...……..93 Figure 6b – Mediation of Subjective SES and ASB by Neighborhood Disadvantage…...….…..94 Figure 7a – Interaction between SES and Disinhibition on Antisocial Behavior……..…..……..95 Figure 7b – Interaction between Subjective SES and Meanness on Antisocial Behavior….........96 Figure 7c – Interaction between Subjective SES and Disinhibition on Antisocial Behavior..…..97 Figure 8 – Interaction between Disadvantage and Meanness on Antisocial Behavior………..…98 Figure 9a– Mediation of SES and ASB by Psychological Distress ….…..…….....…..…...….....99 Figure 9b– Mediation of Subjective SES and ASB by Psychological Distress ….…..…….......100 Figure 10 - Interaction between Psychological Distress & Meanness on Antisoc. Behavior......101 Figure 11 – Interaction between Psychological Distress & Boldness on Antisoc. Behavior…..102 ix Mechanisms, Low SES, Antisocial Behavior List of Appendices Appendix A – Recruitment Flyer…….……….……….…….…..……………...………………103 Appendix B – Information Sheet…………….……...….….….….….……...….………………104 Appendix C – Demographics Questionnaire……………………...….…..….……….…...……107 Appendix D – Objective SES Items.…………………………….……………….…...…...……110 Appendix E – MacArthur Subjective Social Status Scale..……..………..……….…...….……111 Appendix F – Informal Social Control ………………….……..…………….………….……..115 Appendix G – Social Disorganization……….……..……..……..….…….…….……….……..116 Appendix H – Psychopathy.….….….….….….….….….…….………………………………..117 Appendix I – Psychological Distress………..…….……....…….…..….………….……….…..119 Appendix J – Antisocial Behavior…………….………….…………….………..……………..120 Appendix K – Physical Aggression…….….….…………..……….....….………….…….…....121 Appendix L – Social Desirability…………………………………..…………………..……....122 Supplementary Social Desirability Analyses.….…………………… ……………………..…..123 Supplementary Neighborhood Disadvantage Analyses.….……………………….………..…..132 Supplementary Analyses – Regional Participant Information.….……….…………..……..…..136 Supplementary Appendix – IRB Waiver.….…………………………….…………..……..…..137 x