E L Issues & Debates P REVISION COMPANION M Everything you need to know for the Issues & Debates topic in Psychology, including: • Gender Bias A • Culture Bias • Free Will & Determinism • Nature-Nurture Debate S • Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches • Ethical Implications www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 2 Contents Gender Bias E 3 Culture Bias 6 L Free Will & Determinism 9 Nature-Nurture DebateP 13 Holism & Reductionism 17 M Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches 21 Ethical Implications 25 A Notes 30 Revision Checklist 32 S Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 3 GENDER BIAS Specification: Gender and culture in psychology – universality and bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW 1. Discuss how gender bias has been an issue in psychology, with reference to the following terms: a. Androcentrism E b. Alpha bias c. Beta bias KEY TERMS DEFINITION L The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based Gender Bias on stereotypes and not on real differences. An alpha bias refers to theories that exaggerate the differences between males Alpha Bias and females. P A beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. These Beta Bias theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females. Androcentrism Theories which are centred on, or focused on males. M 1. Gender Bias in Psychology The term bias is used to suggest that a person’s views are distorted in some way, and in psychology there is evidence that gender is presented in a biased way. This bias leads to differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences. For example, Freud argued that A‘anatomy is destiny’, meaning that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women because of their physiological differences. For example, he claimed young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’, and viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity. The difficulty lies in distinguishing “real” from culturally created gender differences. Evidence suggests S that there are a small number of real gender differences, confirmed through cross-cultural studies. For example, in a review of the research on sex differences, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that there were only four differences between boys and girls: (cid:131) Girls have greater verbal ability. (cid:131) Boys have greater visual and spatial abilities. (cid:131) Boys have greater arithmetical ability, which is a difference that only appears at adolescence. (cid:131) Girls are less aggressive than boys. 1a. Androcentrism Androcentrism means being centred on, or dominated by, males or the male viewpoint. This can be conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way) or unconscious. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world. Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) argued for there being two types of gender bias: alpha and beta bias. 1b. Alpha Bias Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females. For example, in his psychoanalytic approach, Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 4 boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and so develop weaker superegos. The evolutionary approach in psychology has also been criticised for its alpha bias. This is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and it is argued that the evolutionary perspective should not be used to justify gender differences. E 1c. Beta Bias Beta bias theories have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females. L For example, Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development was based on extensive interviews that he conducted with boys aged 10-16. The same all-male sample was then re-interviewed at intervals of 3-4 years over a 20- year period. His classification system is based on a morality of justice and some researchers, such as Carol Gilligan (1982), have found that women tend to be more focused on P relationships when making moral decisions and therefore often appear to be at a lower level of moral reasoning when using Kohlberg’s system. Therefore Kohlberg’s approach meant that a real difference was ignored. There is also evidence of beta bias in psychological research. Male and female participants are used in M most studies, but there is normally no attempt to analyse the data to see whether there are significant sex differences. Where differences are found, it may be possible that these occur because researchers ignore the differential treatment of participants. For example, Rosenthal (1966) reported that male experimenters were more pleasant, friendly, honest, and encouraging with female participants than with male participants. This led Rosenthal to conclude: “Male and female subjects may, psychologically, simply not be in the same experiment at all.” A Even some animal research can be argued to suffer from beta bias. For example, biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals because they have fewer variations in hormones than females. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or- flight response woSuld be the same for both. However, later stress research by Taylor et al. (2000) has challenged this view by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response. The beta- bias in the earlier animal studies meant that for a long time the stress response was not fully understood and a real difference was ignored. The result of beta bias in psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias. For example, Asch’s (1951; 1955) conformity studies involved all male participants, as did many of the other conformity studies (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980) and it was just assumed that females would respond in the same way. Evaluation of Gender Bias in Psychology (cid:131) Unfortunately, issues of gender bias often go unchallenged. For example, Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective (choosy) in terms of mate selection. These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises. Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 5 (cid:131) By developing a greater understanding of gender bias, psychologists have put forward a number of solutions. For example, some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women. Cornwell et al. (2013) noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value of and the positive attributes of women. As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes, which is important in reducing gender bias. o Another way to reduce gender bias is to take a feminist approach that attempts to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research. For example, feminist psychology accepts that there are biological differences between males and females: E Research by Eagly (1978) claims that females are less effective leaders than males. However, the purpose of Eagly’s claim is to help researchers develop training programmes aimed at increasing the number of female leaders in the real world. o Worrell (1992) also suggested a number of research criteria tLhat are particularly important to ensure research investigations that are not gender biased: using alternative methods of inquiry to explore the personal lives of women; considering women in the natural settings in which they function; collaborating with research participants to explore personally relevant variables and studying diverse samples (Pwomen who vary by age, socio-economic class, partner preference, minority or ethnic group). (cid:131) As society has changed and females have progressed further in academic disciplines such as psychology, there have been changes, both in the research methodology used and in the earlier M theories. As previously explained, Carol Gilligan (a student of Kohlberg’s) proposed that women have a different sense of moral understanding from men and compiled her own stage theory of moral understanding. Her approach showed that men and women are different, but neither kind of moral reasoning (justice focus or care focus) is considered to be better, they are just different. (cid:131) It is also important to remember that sometimes the gender bias can work against males as well as A females, as sometimes alpha bias theories heighten the value of women. For example, Chodorow (1978) viewed women as more relational and caring. Another example is that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males. This may be because woman are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could be that the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression among women. The expectation that males should be able to ‘pull themselves S together’ may highlight an issue with the diagnostic systems for mental disorders. Possible Exam Questions 1. Which of the following statements describes the term androcentrism? a. Theories that are focused or centred on men. b. Theories that ignore differences between men and women. c. Theories that exaggerate differences between men and women. d. Theories that apply equally to men and women. 2. Briefly explain what is meant by the term ‘gender bias’ in psychology. (2 marks) 3. Outline how androcentrism has affected psychological research. (3 marks) 4. Explain the difference between an alpha and beta bias. (4 marks) 5. Discuss gender bias in psychology. (16 marks) Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 6 CULTURE BIAS Specification: Gender and culture in psychology – universality and bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW 1. Discuss how culture bias has been an in issue in Psychology, with reference to the following terms: a. Ethnocentrism E b. Cultural Relativism 2. Understand what is meant by universality and how theories can be developed that apply to all people and include real differences L KEY TERMS DEFINITION Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a Culture group of people. Culture Bias Culture bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions. P Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, Alpha Bias and that recognition of these enduring differences must always inform psychological research and understanding. Beta bias occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people Beta Bias are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions M that mistakenly assume that all cultures are the same. Ethnocentrism means seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective, and Ethnocentrism believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Cultural Cultural relativism insists that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural Relativism context is taken into consideration. When a theorAy is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, Universality irrespective of gender and culture. 1. Culture Bias in Psychology Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people. A S variety of factors shape culture and these different factors are reflected in the differences between various cultures. Historically, psychology has been dominated by white, middle-class American males, who have monopolised psychology both as researchers and participants. However, research findings and theories have been generalised, as if culture makes no real difference. Culture bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions. In psychology, culture bias takes the same two forms as gender bias. Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, and that recognition of these enduring differences must always inform psychological research and understanding. Beta bias, on the other hand, occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume that all cultures are identical. Exam Hint: The terms alpha and beta bias are only required for gender bias, and while it is useful to understand these terms, you are only required to understand ethnocentrism and cultural relativism for the Culture in Psychology subtopic. Another way to consider culture bias is through the distinction between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 7 1a. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism means seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective, and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Ethnocentrism is an often inadvertent lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own. For example, definitions of abnormality vary from culture to culture. Rack (1984) claims that African-Caribbeans in Britain are sometimes diagnosed as ‘mentally ill’ on the basis of behaviour which is perfectly normal in their subculture, and this is due to the ignorance of African-Caribbean subculture on the part of white psychiatrists. Ainsworth's Strange Situation is another example of ethnocentric research. The Strange SiEtuation was developed to assess attachment types, and many researchers assume that the Strange Situation has the same meaning for the infants from other cultures, as it does for American children. German children, on average, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour. However, it is not the case that German mothers are more insensitive than American mothers. Instead, they value and encourage L independent behaviour, and therefore their children react differently in the Strange Situation. The Strange Situation has been described as an imposed etic, which is when a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another. P Extension: An etic approach looks at behaviour from the outside, whereas emic approach considers behaviour from the inside. 1b. Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism insists that behaviour can be pMroperly understood only if the cultural context is taken into consideration. Therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere, is suspect. According to this viewpoint, the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture. For example, Sternberg (1985) pointed out that coordination skills that may be essential to life in a preliterate society (e.g., those motor skills requiredA for shooting a bow and arrow) may be mostly irrelevant to what is considered intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more “developed” society. Evaluation of Culture Bias in Psychology (cid:131) Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and S validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have. (cid:131) One way to deal with culture bias is to recognise it when it occurs. Smith and Bond found, in their 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology, that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world. This suggests that much psychological research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by simply selecting different cultural groups to study. (cid:131) Contemporary psychologists are significantly more open-minded and well-travelled than previously, and have an increased understanding of other cultures at both a personal and professional level. For example, international psychology conferences increase the exchange of ideas between psychologists which has helped to reduce ethnocentrism in psychology and enabled a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism. o This heightened awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’: theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 8 different cultural contexts. One example is Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of behaviours and attitudes. This is an example of an emic approach, which emphasises the uniqueness of every culture and looks at behaviour from the inside of a particular cultural system. This matters because it has led to the emergence of theories that are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins. The development of indigenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of cultural relativism, but there are limitations as well: Are Afrocentric theories not as culturally biased as those they claim to replace? E (cid:131) There has also been some progress in the field of diagnosing mental disorders. Early versions of the American DSM system virtually ignored mental disorders that are found mainly or exclusively in non- American cultures. DSM-IV in 1994 acknowledged the inadequacy of that approach and included a short appendix on culture-bound syndromes found in other parts of the Lworld. However, Kleinman and Cohen (1997) dismissed this appendix as “little more than a sop thrown to cultural psychiatrists and psychiatric anthropologists” and pointed out that detailed work in several non-Western cultures had uncovered many disorders totally ignored by DSM-IV. Examples include: pa-fend (fear of wind) found in China; amafufunyana (violent behaviour caused by Pspirit possession) found in South Africa and brain fag (problems in concentrating and thinking produced by excessive study) found in West Africa. 2. Universality M When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture. However, this also means that it needs to include real differences. In relation to gender, this means developing theories that show the similarities and differences between males and females, without devaluing either gender. This may mean using a variety of research methods and considering women in the nAatural settings in which they function. With regard to culture, one way to achieve universality would be to employ what Berry (1969) described as a derived etic. This is where a series of emic studies take place in local settings, conducted by local researchers using local techniques. Such studies can build up a picture of human behaviour in a similar way to the ethnographic approach taken by anthropologists. This is the study of different cultures through the use of comparisons, as by S making comparisons between cultures we can learn more about a target culture. Possible Exam Questions 1. Outline two examples of culture bias in psychological research. (4 marks) 2. Just before the First World War Yerkes developed Army intelligence tests in order to assess recruits. The items on the tests were very specific to American culture and the test results showed that European immigrants fell slightly below White Americans in terms of intelligence and African- Americans were at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age. With reference to the above example, explain what is meant by ethnocentrism. (4 marks) 3. Essay: Discuss culture bias in psychology. (16 marks) Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 9 FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM Specification: Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism; biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis on causal explanations WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW 1. Understand what is meant by free will and determinism and the distinction between hard determinism and soft determinism E 2. Discuss examples of determinism in psychology, including: (cid:131) Biological determinism (cid:131) Environmental determinism (cid:131) Psychic determinism 3. Understand how the scientific emphasis on causal explanations leads toL determinism in psychology KEY TERMS DEFINITION Biological Biological determinism refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and P Determinism determined by genes. Science is heavily deterministic in its search for causal relationships (explanations) as it Causal seeks to discover whether X causes Y, or whether the independent variable causes Explanations changes in the dependent variable. Determinism is the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed Determinism M by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Environmental determinism is the view that behaviour is determined or caused by Environmental forces outside the individual. Environmental determinism posits that our behaviour is Determinism caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning. Free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Free Will The assumptAion is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self- determined. Hard determinism is the view that forces outside of our control (e.g. biology or past Hard experience) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free Determinism will. S Psychic determinism claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood Psychic experiences and innate drives (id, ego and superego), as in Freud’s model of Determinism psychological development. Soft determinism is an alternative position favoured by many psychologists. According Soft to soft determinism, behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make- Determinism up, but only to a certain extent. 1. Free Will & Determinism Determinism is the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Consequently, our behaviour is viewed as predictable. The causal laws of determinism form the basis of science. An example of an external force would be the influence of parents when rewarding certain behaviours, whereas an example of an internal force would be hormones influencing the way in which someone behaves. However, while determinism is the view that we have no control over our behaviour, there are varying degrees of determinism, including hard and soft determinism. Hard determinism is the view that forces outside of our control (e.g. biology or past experience) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will. Soft determinism is an alternative position favoured by many psychologists. Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology AQA A Level Psychology Revision Companion: Issues & Debates Page 10 According to soft determinism, behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent. Soft determinism suggests that some behaviours are more constrained than others and that there is an element of free will in all behaviour. This was the view of Nick Heather (1976) who proposed that while our behaviour is predictable, that doesn’t make it inevitable. We can choose how to behave, but normally we only have a limited number of behaviours to choose from. Free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined. For example, people can make a free choice as to whether to commit a crime or not. Therefore, a person is responsible for their own E actions, and it is impossible to predict human behaviour with any precision. 2. Examples of Determinism in Psychology Biological determinism refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes. L Research into the human genome provides evidence to support the idea of biological determinism. For example, research has found that a particular gene (IGF2r) is implicated in intelligence (Hill et al., 1999). Furthermore, Chorley et al., (1998) reported a statistically significant association between IQ test scores and the IGF2r gene on chromosome six, suggesting that intelligence is to some extent biologically P determined. Environmental determinism is the view that behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual. Environmental determinism posits that our behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning. For example, Bandura (1961) found that children with violent M parents are more likely to become violent parents themselves, as a result of observational learning. Finally, Psychic determinism, claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (id, ego and superego), as in Freud’s model of psychological development. Evaluation A (cid:131) Humanistic psychologists argue against determinism, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause. Furthermore, there is plenty of evidence to support humanistic psychologists. For example, identical twin studies typically find an 80% similarity in intelligence scores and a 40% similarity in the likelihood of depression. However, as S identical twins share 100% of their genes, these results suggest that 20% is caused by other (environmental) factors. This demonstrates that biological determinism is unable to explain any particular behaviour, in this case, depression and intelligence. The same evidence indicates that no behaviour is completely environmentally determined. If identical twins only show an 80% likeness in terms of intelligence, it is therefore assumed that only 20% is caused by the environment. (cid:131) While Freud appears to support a deterministic point of view, in that he argued that the unconscious controls our actions and our thoughts, the goal of psychoanalysis is to help patients overcome that force. This insight has been taken up by several neo-Freudians, and one of the most influential has been Erich Fromm (1941). He argued that all of us have the potential to control our lives but that many of us are too afraid to do so, which means we give up our freedom and allow our lives to be governed by circumstance, other people, political ideology or irrational feelings. However, determinism is not inevitable, and Fromm sees the essence of human freedom in being the choice between good and evil. (cid:131) Many psychologists, theorists and legal experts do not favour a deterministic point of view. If behaviour is determined by outside forces, that provides a potential excuse for criminal acts. For example, in 1981 Stephen Mobley argued that he was ‘born to kill’ after killing a pizza shop manager, Copyright tutor2u Limited / All Rights Reserved. NOT TO BE PHOTOCOPIED www.tutor2u.net/psychology