Proggresive Muslim Feminists in Indonesia from Pioneering to the Next Agendas A thesis presented to the faculty of the Center for International Studies of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Farid Muttaqin June 2008 2 This thesis titled Proggresive Muslim Feminists in Indonesia from Pioneering to the Next Agendas by FARID MUTTAQIN has been approved for the Center for International Studies by ________________________________________ Elizabeth F. Collins Associate Professor, Classic and World Religions ________________________________________ Gene Ammarell Director, Southeast Asian Studies ________________________________________ Drew McDaniel Director, Center for International Studies 3 Abstract MUTTAQIN, FARID, M.A., June 2008, Southeast Asian Studies Progressive Muslim Feminists in Indonesia from Pioneering to the Next Agendas (162 pp) Director of Thesis: Elizabeth F. Collins In this paper, I explore some progressive Islamic feminist organizations and their contributions to popularizing Islamic reform movements in Indonesia through their popular pioneering agendas. Some pioneers of progressive Muslim feminists, such as P3M, FK3, PUAN Amal Hayati and Rahima have killed two birds with one stone. They made an important impact on reducing stigma against Islamic reform ideas and feminism. Many Indonesian Muslims often consider Islamic reform movements and feminism a Western conspiracy to destroy Islam. Progressive Muslim feminist groups’ approaches to local Muslim scholars of pesantren (traditional Islamic boarding school) are vital in shifting these local leaders to be focal points of Islamic reform. With more popular issues of Islamic reform, such as reproductive rights and domestic violence, they create an efficient step to introduce Islamic reform movements to Muslims at the grassroot level. The feminist organizations make a crucial follow-up activity by applying feminist perspectives in reinterpreting classical Islamic thoughts. They have produced a specific method of Quranic interpretation (tafsir) and consequently have created a particular Islamic thinking from the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad’s traditions (hadith). Indonesian Muslim feminists have developed their methods of tafsir through direct engagement with women’s experiences of violence. This effort is vital in spreading both Islamic reform movements and feminism within Indonesian Muslims. 4 The growing number of progressive Muslim feminists and their crucial contributions to popularizing Islamic reform movements in Indonesia lead conservative Muslim groups’ responses to attack the groups. Among other challenges for the progressive Muslim feminists are the growing Islamic shari’ah movements and the rise of conservative Islamic expression and the rise of polygamy practice within reformist and progressive Muslims. I make suggestions for how the progressive Islamic feminist movement can be strengthened in its struggle against conservative Muslims, including creating an accessible method of tafsir for more Muslim women’s groups, introducing a multicultural approach to traditional women’s groups like majlis ta’lim, and broadening networks by making cooperation with homosexual movement activists. Approaved ______________________________________________________________ Elizabeth F. Collins Associate Professor, Classic and World Religions 5 Acknowledgment I cannot express enough gratitute to many people supported me during my study at Ohio University. This learning experience is a part of the long process of life that includes many contributions from a number of people. I understand, I would not be able to reach this experience without any kind of help from them in various ways. My parents are on the top level of deserving my appreciation. They provide me with huge spiritual equipments that make me strong when I felt so despaired in finishing my study. My older sister and her family are on the second stage to gain my gratitude. The “financial instability” in their life inspired me to work hard in completing my study. Dr. Elizabeth Fuller Collins who gave me unlimited guidance, not only in finishing the thesis, but also during my time at Ohio University, deserves the highest honor. She also deserves my special thanks for her tremendous job of making my writing style more “American.” It means a lot to me since I have a dream of being a part of the high American academic tradition. In addition, I also owe Dr. Loren Lybarger and Dr. Risa Whitson for their great comments and thoughts on my work. I also dedicate my honor to other professors at Ohio University, particularly Dr. Gene Ammarell, Dr. Sholeh Quinn, Dr. William (Bill) Frederick, Dr. Harry Avelling, Dr. Margaret Manoogia, Dr. Ronald Hunt, Dr. Haley Duschinski and Dr. Ann Tickamyer. From them I learned a lot about how to be a mature academician in a never-ending learning process. They greatly contributed to strengthening my open-minded perspective. 6 My friends and colleagues, with whom I shared my happiness and my blueness and served me with a comfortable social and intellectual zone, also deserve my acknowldgement. I need to mention some of them, yet I do not intend to exclude other names. They are Diah Irawaty, Animesh Rathore, Lina Himawan, Sukidi Mulyadi, Lewinna Aguskin, Sandra Nahdar, Muhammad Chozin, Rudy Sukandar, Erda Handayani, Adrian Budiman, Nurul Pratiwi, Putut Widjanarko, Elin Driana, Song Seung Won, Keng We Koh, Elis Z. Anis, Anis Nahrowi, Ahmad Thohir Yoga, Maryani Budiman, Sri Murniati, Eka Sabeh, Il Sangaji, Anton Wiranata, Sony Karsono, Ezqi Suyanto, Ahmad Fauzi, Efta and Nova Yudiarsyah, Yojo Surdjana, Daniel TA Harahap, Karmila Mahmud, Nelly Martin, Fitria Kurniasih, Dyah Arin, Tsuroya, Merlita Anggraini, Irfana Stevanio, Wini Pratiwi, Brian Pranata, Gugun Gunardi, Amanda Athenia, Citro Juwono, Citra Nurmala, Eko Junor, Niken Hardiani, Adila Prasodjo, Kenny Ling, Valhan Hamdiana, Firman Manan and Anggi, Lauri Hlavacs, Kristin Dunsky, Molly Roth, Angie Kilbane, Lourdes Caballero, Anthony Medrano, Karla Schneider, Jeff and Pittaya Paladroi Shane, Tim Pappa, Rick Kraince, Juli Sunderlin, Lucy Conn, Debbie Lee, Kiko Tanaka, Daisy Wang, Sara Jones, Angela Predisik, Talinn Philips, Joan Kraynanski, Pang Pichayakul, Hadi Ndji, Asmaa Shehata, Meghan Dudley, Christine Potts and Janice. My other Indonesian mates as well as non-Indonesian friends and colleagues, whose names could not be mentioned here, also deserve my sincere thanks. I also want to express my sincere thanks to my colleagues in PUAN Amal Hayati and other feminist organizations in Indonesia. Sinta Nuriyah, Bunda Sri Sugiri, Husein Muhammad, Ciciek Farha, Maria Ulfah Anshor, Badriyah Fayumi, Diah Rofika, 7 Muhyiddin A. Shomad, Ruqoyyah Ma’shum, Syafiq Hasyim, Lies Marcoes-Natsir, and Lily Purba whose dedication for enhancing women’s rights really fired my motivation and desire in doing the same experiences and even more. Last but not least, my study at Ohio University would not happen without the scholarship from Ford Foundation with its International Fellowships Program (IFP). I thank those from both IIE in New York and IIEF in Jakarta who managed my financial needs. Finally to women all over the world who work hard to survive in this male- dominated planet and to those who struggle for equality among human beings, I devote my works. Athens, Ohio, April 21, 2008 8 Table of Content Page Abstract …………………………………………………………………………............. 3 Acknowledgment ……………………………………………………………………….. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction ..…………………………………………………………..… 10 A. Background ………………………………………………………………………… 10 B. Methodology .…..………………………………………………………………....... 14 Chapter 2: Women and Islam: The Foundations of Progressive Islamic Feminism ………………………………... 20 A. Arabic Traditions and the Cultural Context of the Early Islam …………………… 20 B. The Progressive Values of the Theology of Tawhid ……………………………… 24 C. The Qur’an: Revolutionary Values and Rational Interpretation ………………….. 28 D. Women in the History of Islam: Marginalization and Struggle …………………... 32 1. Khadijah and ‘Aishah: Two Faces of Revolutionary Muslim Women ……….. 33 a. Khadijah: Being Revolutionary in the Domestic Sphere …………….…. 34 b. ‘Aishah: Woman’s Participation in Public Roles …………………………. 38 2. Rabi’ah al-‘Adawiyah: Sufi Spirituality ………………………………………. 40 3. Muhaddithat: Women and the Tradition of Hadith ………………………….. 47 E. Women’s Marginalization in Islamic History …………………………………….... 53 F. Theorizing Progressive Islamic Feminism ………………………………………..... 59 Chapter 3: The Dynamics of the Progressive Muslim Feminist Movement in Indonesia from Pesantren Communities to Muslim Feminist Groups ……..…..… 68 A. Early Islamic Feminism in Indonesia ………………….………………………….. 68 B. Feminism in Indonesia ……………………………………………………………. 71 C. From Islamic Renewal to Progressive Islamic Feminism …………………………. 72 D. The 1998 Reform Movement: Blessing or Anathema? ..………………………...... 75 E. Progressive Muslim Feminist Organizations ……………………………………… 78 1. Perhimpunan Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat (P3M) …………….. 78 2. Forum Kajian Kitab Kuning (FK3)…………………………………….....…….. 84 3. PUAN Amal Hayati: Pesantren as the Center of Women’s Advocacy ……….. 90 4. Rahima: Providing Academic Spaces for Muslim Women ……………………. 95 9 5. Grassroots Groups: Serving Local Communities with Women’s Advocacy Programs …………………………………………………….. ……………….. 99 Chapter 4: From Challenges to New Agendas Promoting Progressive Islamic Feminism in Indonesia ...……………………….... 104 A. The Rise of Islamic Shari’ah Movements ………………………………………… 104 B. Progressive Muslims and the Polygamy Debate ……………………………...…... 109 C. The Domestic Violence Act …………………………………………………..….. 114 D. The Challenge of NGO Activism and Project-Based Programs …………………. 116 E. Providing Space for Women as Interpreters of Islam (Mufassir) …………..…….. 119 F. A Multicultural Approach to Traditional Women’s Groups ……………..………. 122 G. Broadening Networks: Homosexual Movement as a Potential Partner ….………. 127 Chapter 5: Reflections on Progressive Islamic Feminism in Indonesia ………… 132 A. Colonial Rule and Islamic Feminism: The Issue of the Veil …………………….. 132 B. Education for Women: The Influence of the Islamic Reform Movement in Egypt..136 C. Islamic Reform and the Involvement of Women in Politics …………….………. 141 D. The New Order and a Return to Motherhood: Women Divided …………………. 146 E. Progressive Islamic Feminism in Indonesia Today: Accomplishments and Challenges …………………………………………………………………… 147 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….……… 150 10 Chapter 1 Introduction A. Background In 1994, I enrolled in the Department of Islamic Theology and Philosophy (Ushul al-Din) at the State Islamic University (Universitas Islam Negeri) in Jakarta. This university is considered one of the most progressive Islamic educational institutions in Indonesia. Harun Nasution, the rector from 1973 to 1984 and a leader of the progressive Islamic movement in Indonesia, was noted for raising the status of the university and giving it a reputation for progressive leadership. In my classes I encountered a tradition of discussion and debate about Islamic theology (‘aqidah), Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), and the interpretation of the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad’s sayings (hadith). This tradition had replaced the more authoritative method of teaching that had characterized the previous academic culture in the university. Students were now encouraged to use their rational capability in studying Islam. They founded their own discussion forums. They tried to apply what they learned from “secular academic disciplines,” such as sociology, philosophy, and anthropology, in the study of Islam. They also discussed political issues. This is the context in which I first encountered feminism and women’s issues. In one forum we discussed women’s issues as defined by feminist theories and tried to approach women’s issues in Indonesian society with critical Islamic views. In these