PPrriinncciipplleess ooff SSoocciiaall PPssyycchhoollooggyy -- 11sstt IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall EEddiittiioonn PPrriinncciipplleess ooff SSoocciiaall PPssyycchhoollooggyy -- 11sstt IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall EEddiittiioonn Dr. Charles Stangor Dr. Rajiv Jhangiani, Dr. Hammond Tarry Unlessotherwisenoted,PrinciplesofSocialPsychologyis(c)2011CharlesStangor.ThetextbookcontentwasproducedbyCharles StangorandislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike3.0UnportedLicense,exceptforthe following additions, which are (c)2014 Dr. Rajiv Jhangiani and (c)2014 Dr. Hammond Tarry and are licensed undera Creative CommonsAttribution 4.0 International License. • Inclusion of new research and theoretical developments. • Updated the chapter opening anecdotes and real world examples to make them more relevant forcontemporary students. • Changed examples, references, and statistics to reflectamoreinternational context. • Added overviewsof some concepts, theories, and key studies not included in the original edition. • Added a list of learning objectives at the start of each chapter. • Added a glossary of key terms at the end of the textbook as a quick-reference for students. Inaddition,thefollowingchangesweremadebutretaintheoriginalCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License: • Merging the separate chapters on “Social Learning” and “Social Affect” to create a single “Social Cognition” chapter. Cover Image:The Party People, as reflected by The Gherkin’s roofbyJames Cridlandused underCC-BY license. Principles of Social Psychology - 1st International EditionbyDr. Rajiv Jhangiani and Dr. Hammond Tarryis licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Contents Acknowledgments vii Preface ix About the Book xii 1. Introducing Social Psychology Defining Social Psychology: History and Principles 16 Affect, Behavior, and Cognition 29 Conducting Research in Social Psychology 34 Chapter Summary 51 2. Social Cognition Sources of Social Knowledge 56 How We Use Our Expectations 70 Social Cognition and Affect 91 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Social Cognition 103 Chapter Summary 104 3. The Self The Cognitive Self: The Self-Concept 108 The Feeling Self: Self-Esteem 126 The Social Self: The Role of the Social Situation 138 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about the Self 157 Chapter Summary 158 4. Attitudes, Behavior, and Persuasion Exploring Attitudes 162 Changing Attitudes through Persuasion 172 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior 185 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Attitudes, Behavior, and Persuasion 200 Chapter Summary 201 5. Perceiving Others Initial Impression Formation 205 Inferring Dispositions Using Causal Attribution 223 Biases in Attribution 230 Individual Differences in Person Perception 242 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Person Perception 250 Chapter Summary 251 iv 6. Influencing and Conforming The Many Varieties of Conformity 255 Obedience, Power, and Leadership 270 Person, Gender, and Cultural Differences in Conformity 287 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Social Influence 295 Chapter Summary 296 7. Liking and Loving Initial Attraction 302 Close Relationships: Liking and Loving over the Long Term 318 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Liking and Loving 334 Chapter Summary 335 8. Helping and Altruism Understanding Altruism: Self and Other Concerns 339 The Role of Affect: Moods and Emotions 350 How the Social Context Influences Helping 355 Other Determinants of Helping 362 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Altruism 374 Chapter Summary 375 9. Aggression Defining Aggression 380 The Biological and Emotional Causes of Aggression 386 The Violence around Us: How the Social Situation Influences Aggression 399 Personal and Cultural Influences on Aggression 406 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Aggression 415 Chapter Summary 416 10. Working Groups: Performance and Decision Making Understanding Social Groups 422 Group Performance 430 Group Decision Making 442 Improving Group Performance and Decision Making 458 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Social Groups 467 Chapter Summary 468 11. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Social Categorization and Stereotyping 475 Ingroup Favoritism and Prejudice 488 Reducing Discrimination 497 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination 508 Chapter Summary 509 12. Competition and Cooperation in Our Social Worlds Conflict, Cooperation, Morality, and Fairness 515 How the Social Situation Creates Conflict: The Role of Social Dilemmas 525 Strategies for Producing Cooperation 536 v Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Cooperation and Competition 544 Chapter Summary 545 About the Authors 547 Glossary 550 vi Acknowledgments From the Adapting Authors First,weoweagreatdebttotheoriginalauthor,Dr.CharlesStangor,forwritingthetextbookandmakingitavailableto all. Webothenjoyedaddingtosuchareadableandengagingresource.WearealsogratefultotheentireOpenEducation teamatBCCampus,includingMaryBurgessandClintLalonde,butespeciallyAmandaCoolidge,whoshepherdedthis projectfromstarttofinish.Thanksalsotooureditorsforspottingtheformattingandreferencingerrorsthatescaped ourattention,toBradPayneforhisincredibleworkonthePressbooksplatformthatfacilitatedourwork,andtoChris Montoya (Thompson Rivers University), Dawn-Louise McLeod (Thompson Rivers University—Open Learning), and Jennifer Walinga (Royal Roads University) for their useful and detailed reviews of the original edition. Rajiv Jhangiani would also like to thank Surita Jhangiani (Capilano University & Justice Institute of British Columbia)forherhelpfulsuggestionsandconstantsupport,aswellasKabirandAahaanJhangiani,forprovidinggreat inspiration and endless joy during the entire process. Hammond Tarry would also like to thank his family for their love, support, and inspiration. From the Original Author Thisbookistheresultofmanyyearsofinteractingwithmanystudents,anditwouldneverhavebeenwrittenwithout them.Sothanks,first,tomymanyexcellentstudents.AlsoaparticularthankstoMichaelBoezi,PamHersperger,and Becky Knauer for their help and support. Iwouldalsoliketothankthefollowingreviewerswhosecomprehensivefeedbackandsuggestionsforimproving the material helped make this a better text: • Mark Agars, California State University, San Bernadino • Sarah Allgood, Virginia Tech University • Lara Ault, Tennessee State University • Sarah Butler, DePaul University • Jamonn Campbell, Shippensburg University • Donna Crawley, Ramapo College • Alexander Czopp, Western Washington University • Marcia Finkelstein, University of South Florida • Dana Greene, North Carolina Central University • Melissa Lea, Millsaps College • Dana Litt, University of Washington • Nick Marsing, Snow College • Kevin McKillop, Washington College • Adam Meade, North Carolina State University • Paul Miceli, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • Marcie Miller, South Plains College • Meg Milligan, Troy University • Dean Morier, Mills College • Darren Petronella, Adelphi University vii viii • PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST INTERNATIONAL EDITION • Lisa Poole, Northeast State Technical Community College • Michael Rader, Northern Arizona University • Diana Rice, Geneva College • David Simpson, Carroll University Preface Preface from Original Author: Charles Stangor WhenIfirststartedteachingsocialpsychology,Ihadtroublefiguringouthowthevarioustopicsinthisexpansivefield fittogether.IfeltlikeIwaspresentingalaundrylistofideas,researchstudies,andphenomena,ratherthananintegrated setofprinciplesandknowledge.Ofcourse,whatwasdifficultformewasharderstillformystudents.Howcouldthey beexpectedtounderstandandrememberallofthemanytopicsthatwesocialpsychologistsstudy?Andhowcouldthey tell what was most important? Something was needed to structure and integrate their learning. It took me some time, but eventually, I realized that the missing piece in my lectures was a consistent focus on thebasicprinciplesofsocialpsychology.OnceIstartedthinkingandtalkingaboutprinciples,thenitallfellintoplace. I knew that when I got to my lecture on altruism, most of my students already knew what I was about to tell them. They understood that, although there were always some tweaks to keep things interesting, altruism was going to be understoodusingthesameideasthatconformityandpersonperceptionhadbeeninearlierlectures—intermsofthe underlying fundamentals—they were truly thinking like social psychologists! Iwrotethis booktohelpstudents organize their thinking about socialpsychologyataconceptual level.Fiveor ten years from now, I do not expect my students to remember the details of a study published in 2011, or even to remembermostofthedefinitionsinthisbook.Idohope,however,thattheywillremembersomebasicideas,foritis these principles that will allow them to critically analyze new situations and really put their knowledge to use. My text is therefore based on a critical thinking approach—its aim is to get students thinking actively and conceptually—with more of a focus on the forest than on the trees. Although there are right and wrong answers, the answers are not the only thing. What is perhaps even more important is how we get to those answers—the thinking processitself.Myeffortsaresuccessfulwhenmystudentshavethat“aha”moment,inwhichtheyfindnewideasfitting snugly into the basic concepts of social psychology. Tohelpstudentsbettergraspthebigpictureofsocialpsychologyandtoprovideyouwithathemethatyoucanuse toorganizeyourlectures,mytexthasaconsistentpedagogyacrossthechapters.Iorganizemypresentationaroundtwo underlying principles that are essential to social psychology: 1.Person and situation (the classic treatment) 2.The ABCs of social psychology (affect, behavior, andcognition) I also frame much of my discussion around the two human motivations of self-concern and other-concern. I use these fundamental motivations to frame discussions on a variety of dimensions including altruism, aggression, prejudice, gender differences, and cultural differences. You can incorporate these dimensions into your teaching as you see fit. Myyearsofteachinghaveconvincedmethatthesedimensionsarefundamental,thattheyareextremelyheuristic, andthat theyarewhatIhopemystudents willlearnandremember.Ithink that youmayfind that thisorganization represents a more explicit representation of what you’re already doing in your lectures. Although my pedagogy is consistent,itisnotconstraining.Youwillusethesedimensionsmoreinsomelecturesthaninothers,andyouwillfind ix x • PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST INTERNATIONAL EDITION themmoreusefulforsometopicsthanothers.Buttheywillalwaysworkforyouwhenyouarereadyforthem.Usethem to reinforce your presentation as you see fit. Perhaps most important, a focus on these dimensions helps us bridge the gap between the textbook, the real- life experiences of our students, and our class presentations. We can’t cover every phenomenon in our lectures—we naturallyletthetextbookfillinthedetails.Thegoalofmybookistoallowyoutorestassuredthatthetexthasprovided yourstudentswiththefoundations—thefundamentallanguageofsocialpsychology—fromwhichyoucanbuildasyou seefit.Andwhenyouturntoaskstudentstoapplytheirlearningtoreallife,youcanknowthattheywillbedoingthis as social psychologists do—using a basic underlying framework. Organization The text moves systematically from lower to higher levels of analysis—a method that I have found makes sense to students.Ontheotherhand,thechapterordershouldnotconstrainyou—chooseadifferentorderifyouwish.Chapter 1 “Introducing Social Psychology” presents an introduction to social psychology and the research methods in social psychology, Chapter 2 “Social Cognition” presents the fundamental principles of social cognition.The remainder of thetext isorganized aroundthreelevelsofanalysis,movingsystematicallyfromtheindividual level(Chapter 3“The Self”throughChapter5“PerceivingOthers”),tothelevelofsocialinteraction(Chapter6“InfluencingandConforming” through Chapter 9 “Aggression”), to the group and cultural level (Chapter 10 “Working Groups: Performance and Decision Making”throughChapter 12 “Competition and Cooperation in Our Social Worlds”). Ratherthanrelyingon“modules”or“appendices”ofappliedmaterials,mytextintegratesappliedconceptsintothe textitself.Thisapproachisconsistentwithmyunderlyingbeliefthatifstudentslearntothinklikesocialpsychologists theywilleasilyandnaturallyapplythatknowledgetoanyandallapplications. Thefollowingapplications arewoven throughout the text: • Business and consumer behavior (see, for instance,Chapter 4 “Attitudes, Behavior, and Persuasion”on marketing and persuasion andChapter 10 “Working Groups: Performance and Decision Making”on group decision making) • Health and Behavior (see, for instance,Chapter 5 “Perceiving Others”on attributional styles) • Law (see, for instance,Chapter 2 “Social Cognition”on eyewitness testimony andChapter 9 “Aggression”on Terrorism) Pedagogy PrinciplesofSocialPsychologycontainsanumberofpedagogicalfeaturesdesignedtohelpstudentsdevelopanactive, integrative understanding of the many topics of social psychology and to think like social psychologists. Research Foci Researchisofcoursetheheartofsocialpsychology,andtheresearchfociprovidedetailedinformationaboutastudyor researchprogram.I’vechosenamixofclassicandcontemporaryresearch,withafocusonbothwhat’sinterestingand what’s pedagogical. The findings are part of the running text—simply highlighted with a heading and light shading. Social Psychology in the Public Interest Social psychological findings interest students in large part because they relate so directly to everyday experience. The Social Psychology in the Public Interest Feature reinforces these links. Topics include Does High Self-Esteem CauseHappinessorOtherPositiveOutcomes?(Chapter3“Self”),DetectingDeception(Chapter5“PerceivingOthers”),