Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence Editor Donald R. Franceschetti, PhD SALEM PRESS A Division of EBSCO Information Services Ipswich, Massachusetts GREY HOUSE PUBLISHING Cover Image: 3d rendering of human on geometric element technology background, by monsitj (iStock Images) Copyright © 2018, by Salem Press, A Division of EBSCO Information Services, Inc., and Grey House Publishing, Inc. Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence, published by Grey House Publishing, Inc., Amenia, NY, under exclusive license from EBSCO Information Services, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. For permissions requests, contact [email protected]. For information contact Grey House Publishing/Salem Press, 4919 Route 22, PO Box 56, Amenia, NY 12501. ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48 1992 (R2009). Publisher’s Cataloging-In-Publication Data (Prepared by The Donohue Group, Inc.) Names: Franceschetti, Donald R., 1947- editor. Title: Principles of robotics & artificial intelligence / editor, Donald R. Franceschetti, PhD. Other Titles: Principles of robotics and artificial intelligence Description: [First edition]. | Ipswich, Massachusetts : Salem Press, a division of EBSCO Information Services, Inc. ; Amenia, NY : Grey House Publishing, [2018] | Series: Principles of | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: ISBN 9781682179420 Subjects: LCSH: Robotics. | Artificial intelligence. Classification: LCC TJ211 .P75 2018 | DDC 629.892--dc23 First Printing Printed in the United States of America Contents Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Data analytics (DA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Editor’s Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Digital logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 DNA computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Advanced encryption standard (AES) . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Domain-specific language (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Agile robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Empirical formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Evaluating expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Application programming interface (API) . . . . . . 10 Expert system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Artificial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Extreme value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Augmented reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Automated processes and servomechanisms . . . . . 19 Fiber technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Autonomous car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Fullerene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Avatars and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Fuzzy logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Behavioral neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Game theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Binary pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Geoinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Biomechanical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Grammatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Biomimetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Bionics and biomedical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Graphics technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Bioplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Bioprocess engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Holographic technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Human-computer interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Hydraulic engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Hypertext markup language (HTML) . . . . . . . . . 153 Central limit theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Charles Babbage’s difference and analytical Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Client-server architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Cognitive science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Computed tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Computer engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Computer languages, compilers, and tools . . . . . . 71 Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Computer memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Computer networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Local area network (LAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Computer simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Machine code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Computer-aided design and manufacturing . . . . . 84 Magnetic storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Continuous random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Microcomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Multitasking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 v Contents Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence Nanoparticle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Self-management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Semantic web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Network interface controller (NIC) . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Network topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Neural engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Set notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Siri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Smart city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Objectivity (science) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Smart homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Object-oriented programming (OOP) . . . . . . . . . 208 Smart label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Open access (OA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Smartphones, tablets, and handheld devices . . . . 277 Optical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Soft robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Solar cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Parallel computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Space drone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Pattern recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Speech recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Stem-and-leaf plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Structured query language (SQL) . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Polymer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Stuxnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Probability and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Programming languages for artificial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Turing test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Proportionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Public-key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Video game design and programming . . . . . . . . . 300 Quantum computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Virtual reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 Z3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Zombie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Time Line of Machine Learning and Artificial Ruby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 A .M . Turing Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327 Scale model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Scientific control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358 Scratch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386 vi Publisher’s Note Salem Press is pleased to add Principles of Robotics & Combinatrics, Cyberspace, Digital logic, Gramma- Artificial Intelligence as the twelfth title in the Principles tology, Neural engineering, Interval, Biomimetics; of series that includes Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, and Soft robotics; and Computer Science, Physical Science, Biology, Scientific ƒ Bibliography lists that relate to the entry . Research, Sustainability, Biotechnology, Programming & Coding and Climatology . This new resource introduces This reference work begins with a comprehensive students and researchers to the fundamentals of ro- introduction to robotics and artificial intelligence, botics and artificial intelligence using easy-to-under- written by volume editor Donald R . Franceschetti, stand language for a solid background and a deeper PhD, Professor Emeritus of Physics and Material understanding and appreciation of this important Science at the University of Memphis . and evolving subject . All of the entries are arranged in an A to Z order, making it easy to find the topic of The book includes helpful appendixes as another interest . valuable resource, including the following: Entries related to basic principles and concepts in- ƒ Time Line of Machine Learning and Artificial clude the following: Intelligence, tracing the field back to ancient his- ƒ A Summary that provides brief, concrete summary tory; of the topic and how the entry is organized; ƒ A .M . Turing Award Winners, recognizing the ƒ History and Background, to give context for work of pioneers and innovators in the field of significant achievements in areas related to ro- computer science, robotics, and artificial intelli- botics and artificial intelligence including math- gence; ematics, biology, chemistry, physics, medicine, ƒ Glossary; and education; ƒ General Bibliography and ƒ Text that gives an explanation of the background ƒ Subject Index . and significance of the topic to robotics and artifi- cial intelligence by describing developments such Salem Press and Grey House Publishing extend as Siri, facial recognition, augmented and virtual their appreciation to all involved in the development reality, and autonomous cars; and production of this work . The entries have been ƒ Applications and Products, Impacts, Concerns, written by experts in the field . Their names and affili- and Future to discuss aspects of the entry that ations follow the Editor’s Introduction . can have sweeping impact on our daily lives, in- Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence, as well cluding smart devices, homes, and cities; medical as all Salem Press reference books, is available in devices; security and privacy; and manufacturing; print and as an e-book and on the Salem Press online ƒ Illustrations that clarify difficult concepts via database, at https://online .salempress .com . Please models, diagrams, and charts of such key topics as visit www .salempress .com for more information . vii Editor’s Introduction Our technologically based civilization may well be holding (and sometimes hiding) meaning . Mythology, poised to undergo a major transition as robotics and astrology, numerology, alchemy, and primitive reli- artificial intelligence come into their own . This tran- gions have all assigned meanings to an alphabet of sition is likely to be as earthshaking as the invention “symbols .” Getting to the heart of that symbolism is of written language or the realization that the earth is a fascinating study . In the realm of AI, we begin with not the center of the universe . Artificial intelligence numbers, from the development of simple algebra (AI) permits human-made machines to act in an in- to the crisis in mathematical thinking that began in telligent or purposeful, manner, like humans, as they the early nineteenth century, which means we must acquire new knowledge, analyze and solve problems, turn to the Euclid’s mathematical treatise, Elements, and much more . AI holds the potential to permit us to written around 300 bce . Scholars had long been im- extend human culture far beyond what could ever be pressed by Euclidean geometry and the certainty it achieved by a single individual . Robotics permits ma- seemed to provide about figures in the plane . There chines to complete numerous tasks, more accurately was only one place where there was less than clarity . and consistently, with less fatigue, and for longer It seemed that Euclid’s fifth postulate (that through periods of time than human workers are capable of any point in the plane one could draw one and only achieving . Some robots are even self-regulating . one straight line parallel to a given line) did not have Not only are robotics and AI changing the world the same character as the other postulates . Various of work and education, they are also capable of pro- attempts were made to derive this postulate from the viding new insights into the nature of human activity others when finally, it was realized that that Euclid’s as well . fifth postulate could be replaced by one stating that The challenges related to understanding how no lines could be drawn parallel to the specified AI and robotics can be integrated successfully into line or, alternatively, by one stating that an infinite our society have raised several profound questions, number of lines could be drawn, distinct from each ranging from the practical (Will robots replace hu- other but all passing through the point . mans in the workplace? Could inhaling nanoparticles The notion that mathematicians were not so much cause humans to become sick?) to the profound investigating the properties of physical space as the (What would it take to make a machine capable of conclusions that could be drawn from a given set of human reasoning? Will “grey goo” destroy man- axioms introduced an element of creativity, or, de- kind?) . Advances and improvements to AI and ro- pending on one’s point of view, uncertainty, to the botics are already underway or on the horizon, so we study of mathematics . have chosen to concentrate on some of the impor- The Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano tried tant building blocks related to these very different to place the emphasis on arithmetic reasoning, which technologies from fluid dynamics and hydraulics . one might assume was even less subject to controversy . This goal of this essay as well as treatments of prin- He introduced a set of postulates that effectively de- ciples and terms related to artificial intelligence and fined the non-negative integers, in a unique way . The robotics in the individual articles that make up this essence of his scheme was the so-called principle of book is to offer a solid framework for a more general induction: if P(N) is true for the integer N, and P(N) discussion . Reading this material will not make you being true implies that P(N+1) is true, then P(N) is an expert on AI or Robotics but it will enable you to true for all N . While seemingly seemingly self-apparent, join in the conversation as we all do our best to deter- mathematical logicians distrusted the principle and mine how machines capable of intelligence and inde- instead sought to derive a mathematics in which the pendent action should interact with humans . postulate of induction was not needed . Perhaps the most famous attempt in this direction was the publica- Historical Background tion of Principia Mathematica, a three-volume treatise Much of the current AI literature has its origin in no- by philosophers Bertrand Russell and Alfred North tions derived from symbol processing . Symbols have Whitehead . This book was intended to do for math- always held particular power for humans, capable of ematics what Isaac Newton’s Philosophiæ Naturalis ix