49315_fm_i-xxxvii.indd 4 4/27/11 12:42 PM 49315_ch02_035-059.indd 59 4/21/11 10:57 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 3 Li Lithium 6.941 1 H Hydrogen 1.0079 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 3B (3) 4B (4) 5B (5) 6B (6) 7B (7) 8B (8) 8B (9) Lanthanides Actinides 4 Be Beryllium 9.0122 11 Na Sodium 22.9898 12 Mg Magnesium 24.3050 19 K Potassium 39.0983 20 Ca Calcium 40.078 21 Sc Scandium 44.9559 22 Ti Titanium 47.867 23 V Vanadium 50.9415 24 Cr Chromium 51.9961 25 Mn Manganese 54.9380 26 Fe Iron 55.845 27 Co Cobalt 58.9332 37 Rb Rubidium 85.4678 55 Cs Cesium 132.9055 87 Fr Francium (223) 88 Ra Radium (226) 89 Ac Actinium (227) 57 La Lanthanum 138.9055 72 Hf Hafnium 178.49 73 Ta Tantalum 180.9479 74 W Tungsten 183.84 75 Re Rhenium 186.207 76 Os Osmium 190.23 77 Ir Iridium 192.217 104 Rf Rutherfordium (267) 105 Db Dubnium (268) 106 Sg Seaborgium (271) 107 Bh Bohrium (272) 108 Hs Hassium (277) 109 Mt Meitnerium (276) 58 Ce Cerium 140.116 59 Pr Praseodymium 140.9076 60 Nd Neodymium 144.242 61 Pm Promethium (145) 62 Sm Samarium 150.36 90 Th Thorium 232.0381 91 Pa Protactinium 231.0359 92 U Uranium 238.0289 93 Np Neptunium (237) 94 Pu Plutonium (244) 56 Ba Barium 137.327 38 Sr Strontium 87.62 39 Y Yttrium 88.9058 40 Zr Zirconium 91.224 41 Nb Niobium 92.9064 42 Mo Molybdenum 95.96 43 Tc Technetium (98) 44 Ru Ruthenium 101.07 45 Rh Rhodium 102.9055 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Atomic number An element KEY Symbol Atomic weight Main group metals Transition metals Metalloids Nonmetals, noble gases 79 Au Gold 196.9665 Name Li He Ne F O N C B Ar S P Si Al Br Kr Se As Ge Ga Zn Cu Ni Xe I Te Sb Sn In Cd Ag Be NaMg K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Rb Cs Fr Ra Ac La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ce Pr Nd PmSm Th Pa U Np Pu Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho AmCm Bk Cf Es Er Tm Yb Lu FmMdNo Lr Ba Sr Y Zr NbMo Tc Ru Rh Pd Rn At Po Bi Pb Tl Hg Au Pt — — — — — — Rg Ds H Cl This icon appears throughout the book to help locate elements of interest in the periodic table. The halogen group is shown here. Elements for which the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has offcially sanctioned the discovery and approved a name are indicated by their chemical symbols in this table. Elements that have been reported in the literature but not yet offcially sanctioned and named are indicated by atomic number. The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been offcially accepted by IUPAC. 2A (2) 1A (1) Group number, U.S. system Group number, IUPAC system Period number Numbers in parentheses are mass numbers of radioactive isotopes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8B (10) 1B (11) 2B (12) 3A (13) 4A (14) 5A (15) 6A (16) 7A (17) 8A (18) 2 He Helium 4.0026 6 C Carbon 12.0107 5 B Boron 10.811 18 Ar Argon 39.948 17 Cl Chlorine 35.453 16 S Sulfur 32.065 15 P Phosphorus 30.9738 14 Si Silicon 28.0855 13 Al Aluminum 26.9815 35 Br Bromine 79.904 36 Kr Krypton 83.798 34 Se Selenium 78.96 33 As Arsenic 74.9216 32 Ge Germanium 72.64 31 Ga Gallium 69.723 30 Zn Zinc 65.38 29 Cu Copper 63.546 28 Ni Nickel 58.6934 54 Xe Xenon 131.293 53 I Iodine 126.9045 52 Te Tellurium 127.60 51 Sb Antimony 121.760 50 Sn Tin 118.710 49 In Indium 114.818 48 Cd Cadmium 112.411 47 Ag Silver 107.8682 63 Eu Europium 151.964 64 Gd Gadolinium 157.25 65 Tb Terbium 158.9254 66 Dy Dysprosium 162.500 95 Am Americium (243) 96 Cm Curium (247) 97 Bk Berkelium (247) 98 Cf Californium (251) 99 Es Einsteinium (252) 68 Er Erbium 167.259 69 Tm Thulium 168.9342 70 Yb Ytterbium 173.054 71 Lu Lutetium 174.9668 100 Fm Fermium (257) 101 Md Mendelevium (258) 102 No Nobelium (259) 103 Lr Lawrencium (262) 46 Pd Palladium 106.42 86 Rn Radon (222) 85 At Astatine (210) 84 Po Polonium (209) 83 Bi Bismuth 208.9804 82 Pb Lead 207.2 81 Tl Thallium 204.3833 80 Hg Mercury 200.59 79 Au Gold 196.9666 78 Pt Platinum 195.084 112 — — (285) 114 — — (287) 115 — — (288) 111 Rg Roentgenium (280) 113 — — (284) 118 — — (294) 116 — — (293) 110 Ds Darmstadtium (281) 10 Ne Neon 20.1797 9 F Fluorine 18.9984 8 O Oxygen 15.9994 7 N Nitrogen 14.0067 67 Ho Holmium 164.9303 49315_EP2-EP3.indd 2 4/27/11 12:43 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1. The atomic weights of many elements vary depending on the origin and treatment of the sample. This is particularly true for Li; commercially available lithium-containing materials have Li atomic weights in the range of 6.939 and 6.996. Uncertainties are given in parentheses following the last significant figure to which they are attributed. 2. Elements with no stable nuclide; the value given in parentheses is the atomic mass number of the isotope of longest known half-life. However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and the atomic weight is tabulated for these. 3.. Not yet named. 4. The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC. Standard Atomic Weights Based on Relative Atomic Mass of 12C 5 12, where 12C is a neutral atom of the Elements 2009, IUPAC in its nuclear and electronic ground state.1 Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Name Symbol Number Weight Name Symbol Number Weight Actinium2 Ac 89 (227) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.96(2) Aluminum Al 13 26.981 5386(8) Neodymium Nd 60 144.242(3) Americium2 Am 95 (243) Neon Ne 10 20.1797(6) Antimony Sb 51 121.760(1) Neptunium2 Np 93 (237) Argon Ar 18 39.948(1) Nickel Ni 28 58.6934(4) Arsenic As 33 74.921 60(2) Niobium Nb 41 92.906 38(2) Astatine2 At 85 (210) Nitrogen N 7 14.0067(2) Barium Ba 56 137.327(7) Nobelium2 No 102 (259) Berkelium2 Bk 97 (247) Osmium Os 76 190.23(3) Beryllium Be 4 9.012 182(3) Oxygen O 8 15.9994(3) Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 40(1) Palladium Pd 46 106.42(1) Bohrium2 Bh 107 (272) Phosphorus P 15 30.973 762(2) Boron B 5 10.811(7) Platinum Pt 78 195.084(9) Bromine Br 35 79.904(1) Plutonium2 Pu 94 (244) Cadmium Cd 48 112.411(8) Polonium2 Po 84 (209) Calcium Ca 20 40.078(4) Potassium K 19 39.0983(1) Californium2 Cf 98 (251) Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 65(2) Carbon C 6 12.0107(8) Promethium2 Pm 61 (145) Cerium Ce 58 140.116(1) Protactinium2 Pa 91 231.035 88(2) Cesium Cs 55 132.905 4519(2) Radium2 Ra 88 (226) Chlorine Cl 17 35.453(2) Radon2 Rn 86 (222) Chromium Cr 24 51.9961(6) Rhenium Re 75 186.207(1) Cobalt Co 27 58.933 195(5) Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 50(2) Copper Cu 29 63.546(3) Roentgenium2 Rg 111 (280) Curium2 Cm 96 (247) Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678(3) Darmstadtium2 Ds 110 (281) Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07(2) Dubnium2 Db 105 (268) Rutherfordium2 Rf 104 (267) Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500(1) Samarium Sm 62 150.36(2) Einsteinium2 Es 99 (252) Scandium Sc 21 44.955 912(6) Erbium Er 68 167.259(3) Seaborgium2 Sg 106 (271) Europium Eu 63 151.964(1) Selenium Se 34 78.96(3) Fermium2 Fm 100 (257) Silicon Si 14 28.0855(3) Fluorine F 9 18.998 4032(5) Silver Ag 47 107.8682(2) Francium2 Fr 87 (223) Sodium Na 11 22.989 769 28(2) Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25(3) Strontium Sr 38 87.62(1) Gallium Ga 31 69.723(1) Sulfur S 16 32.065(5) Germanium Ge 32 72.64(1) Tantalum Ta 73 180.947 88(2) Gold Au 79 196.966 569(4) Technetium2 Tc 43 (98) Hafnium Hf 72 178.49(2) Tellurium Te 52 127.60(3) Hassium2 Hs 108 (277) Terbium Tb 65 158.925 35(2) Helium He 2 4.002 602(2) Thallium Tl 81 204.3833(2) Holmium Ho 67 164.930 32(2) Thorium2 Th 90 232.038 06(2) Hydrogen H 1 1.00794(7) Thulium Tm 69 168.934 21(2) Indium In 49 114.818(3) Tin Sn 50 118.710(7) Iodine I 53 126.904 47(3) Titanium Ti 22 47.867(1) Iridium Ir 77 192.217(3) Tungsten W 74 183.84(1) Iron Fe 26 55.845(2) Uranium2 U 92 238.028 91(3) Krypton Kr 36 83.798(2) Vanadium V 23 50.9415(1) Lanthanum La 57 138.905 47(7) Xenon Xe 54 131.293(6) Lawrencium2 Lr 103 (262) Ytterbium Yb 70 173.054(5) Lead Pb 82 207.2(1) Yttrium Y 39 88.905 85(2) Lithium Li 3 [6.941(2)]† Zinc Zn 30 65.38(2) Lutetium Lu 71 174.9668(1) Zirconium Zr 40 91.224(2) Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050(6) —2,3,4 112 (285) Manganese Mn 25 54.938 045(5) —2,3 113 (284) Meitnerium2 Mt 109 (276) —2,3 114 (287) Mendelevium2 Md 101 (258) —2,3 115 (288) Mercury Hg 80 200.59(2) —2,3 116 (293) —2,3 118 (294) 49315_EP2-EP3.indd 3 4/27/11 12:43 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. • Master chemistry and improve your grade using OWL’s step-by-step tutorials, interactive simulations, and homework questions that provide instant answer-specifi c feedback. Available 24/7. • Learn at your own pace with OWL, a study smart system that ensures you’ve mastered each concept before you move on. • Access an e-version of your textbook enhanced with videos and animations, highlighting, the ability to add notes, and more. Log in now to the leading online learning system for chemistry. Score better on exams, get homework help, and more! www.cengage.com/OWL To get started, use the access code that may have been packaged with your text or purchase access online. Check with your instructor to verify that OWL is required for your course before purchasing. Get a Better Grade in Chemistry! Oxtoby SE Endpaper OWL FINAL.indd 1 Oxtoby SE Endpaper OWL FINAL.indd 1 4/25/11 1:34 PM 4/25/11 1:34 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 49315_fm_i-xxxvii.indd 4 4/27/11 12:42 PM This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY D A V I D W . O X T O B Y Pomona College H . P . G I L L I s University of California—Los Angeles A L A N C A M P I O N The University of Texas at Austin Images of orbitals in Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 8 contributed by H A T E M H . H E L A L California Institute of Technology and Cambridge University, UK K E L L Y P . G A I T H E R The University of Texas at Austin s E V E N T H E D I T I O N Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 49315_fm_i-xxxvii.indd 1 4/27/11 12:42 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Principles of Modern Chemistry, Seventh Edition David W. Oxtoby, H.P. Gillis, Alan Campion Publisher: Mary Finch Executive Editor: Lisa Lockwood Developmental Editor: Thomas Martin Assistant Editor: Jon Olafsson Editorial Assistant: Krista Mastroianni Senior Media Editor: Lisa Weber Media Editor: Stephanie VanCamp Marketing Manager: Nicole Hamm Marketing Assistant: Julie Stefani Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip Content Project Manager: Teresa L. Trego Design Director: Rob Hugel Art Director: John Walker Print Buyer: Karen Hunt Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Dean Dauphinais Production Service: Graphic World Inc. Text Designer: Brian Salisbury Photo Researcher: Bill Smith Group Copy Editor: Graphic World Inc. Illustrator: Graphic World Inc. OWL Producers: Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, and David Hart in the Center for Educational Software Development at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and Cow Town Productions Cover Designer: RHDG | Riezebos Holzbaur Cover Image: Dr. Eric Heller Compositor: Graphic World Inc. © 2012, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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