Principles of Environmental Sciences Jan J. Boersema (cid:129) Lucas Reijnders Editors Principles of Environmental Sciences With Editorial Assistance by Joeri Bertels and Henk Bezemer Editors Jan J. Boersema Lucas Reijnders Institute for Environmental Studies IBED/EDCO Vrije Universiteit University Amsterdam De Boelelaan 1087 Nieuwe Achtergracht 166 1081 HV Amsterdam 1018 WV Amsterdam The Netherlands The Netherlands [email protected] [email protected] ISBN 978-1-4020-9157-5 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-9158-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008936827 © 2009 Springer Science + Business Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfi lming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Chapters 23, 24, 25 © Edward Elgar Publishing, Aldershot, United Kingdom The Editors acknowledge that there are instances where they were unable to trace or contact the copy- right holder for permission to reproduce selected material in this volume. The Editors have included complete source references for all such material and take full responsibility for these matters. If notifi ed, the Publisher will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. Cover illustration: Landscape near Emden (Germany) Photo: Jan J. Boersema Printed on acid-free paper springer.com Preface Why this book? This academic textbook is meant to be complementary to the many existing textbooks on environmental science. It distinguishes itself for two main reasons: (cid:129) Environmental problems, the object of the environmental sciences, are seen and described as resulting from observed phenomena in our natural environment on one hand, and the societal awareness and evaluation of these phenomena on the other. A combination of the two causes a phenomenon to be considered ‘an envi- ronmental problem’. Therefore, students must learn that right from the beginning there is a cultural and historical dimension when it comes to defi ning and analysing environmental problems. That is why we pay attention to environmental history and to the variations in both perception and the implementation of solutions. In more philosophical terms: this book tries to avoid the ‘Scylla of positivism’ (as natural scientists, we know what the problems are) and the ‘Charybdis of con- structivism’ (problems only exist if we see them as problems). (cid:129) This book provides a comprehensive picture of the various principles, concepts, and methods applicable to environmental problems, and relates these methods to underlying guiding principles and the adjacent policy measures. The focus is on multi- and interdisciplinary methods, although most of the methods originate from a specifi c discipline and many have a limited domain. Wherever possible, exam- ples of application of a method in practice are given, as well as evaluations in terms of gains of a particular method over other methods. This focus on methodol- ogy distinguishes this book from other textbooks. To give just two examples: The LCA-approach (Life Cycle Analysis/Assessment) is given only a few lines in most basic textbooks, although this methodology has become widely and offi cially accepted by professionals and scientists (as an ISO-standard). Modelling is not explicitly dealt with in most textbooks either, although many different kinds of models are common practice in environmental studies. Throughout this book the term sciences is meant to include the social sciences and even disciplines of the humanities. v vi Preface Aim The aim of this academic textbook is threefold: (cid:129) To describe environmental problems in their historical context (cid:129) To delineate how complex environmental problems can be analysed and tackled by using various (inter)disciplinary concepts, methods and tools and (cid:129) To illustrate how solutions work out in their social context Readership The book is intended to be a course text for students who take environmental science as a major or as a minor. So, the book is primarily meant for: (cid:129) Undergraduate and graduate students of multi- and interdisciplinary courses in environmental studies/sciences and courses focusing on methodology (cid:129) Graduate students specialising in environmental topics of their discipline To a lesser degree, the book or chapters of the book may be useful as a reference to students of some post-academic course or ‘lifetime learning’ course for professionals in the environmental fi eld. Assumed background: an introductory course in environmental science and/or some years of disciplinary training. Outline In line with the three aims, the book is subdivided into three parts. Part I, Stating the Problem (Chapters 1–6) This part introduces the environmental sciences and gives an overview of the histori- cal context. This is done on a large timescale, including geological and human his- tory. It concludes with a concise description of recent developments and trends. Part II, Principles and Methods (Chapters 7–18) This is the core of the book. It starts with two chapters on the guiding principles, fol- lowed by seven chapters in which disciplinary and multidisciplinary methods are described and explained at length. The text will include many practical examples, including evaluations of the pros and cons of each example. This part concludes with three chapters on integrative methods. Special emphasis is given to the concept of integration, modelling (both as a learning and research tool) and integrated assessment. Part III, Context and Perspectives (Chapters 19–28) The last part is designed to illustrate the way solutions work in a specifi c societal context. The fi rst chapter introduces the topic, which is followed by three case studies on different spatial scales. Solutions need to be implemented in and/or accepted by a given society. The same (technical/practical) solution of a more or less similar problem may provoke quite different reactions in different societies. The case studies will be used to illustrate this point. Finally the book offers perspectives on economic growth and on major societal sectors and the most likely course they will take in the future. Although it is acknowledged that (by defi nition) there is no such phenomenon as an objective description of environmental problems, the book tries to avoid a too outspoken standpoint. Preface vii Learning Objectives We expect students to learn some specifi c skills, e.g. the essentials of building a model or applying LCA, but our main objective is to improve their ability to analyse and conceptualise environmental problems in context, to make students aware of the value and scope of different methods and to teach them the results and insights of previous work in this fi eld. Amsterdam, August 2008 Jan J. Boersema & Lucas Reijnders, Acknowledgements As editors we are ultimately responsible for the book as it stands, although authors remain responsible for the content of their chapters. The Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment is greatly acknowledged for their generous fi nancial support. The Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University is acknowledged for hosting the ‘book project’ in its initial period. Many people have provided help, encouragement, and advice over the years. We are grateful to all of them in many ways: To: Paul Roos and Betty van Herk of Springer Publisher for their enduring support and belief in the project. To: Nachshon Rodrigues Pereira and Marleen Rengers for their technical assistance and to Edith de Roos for her bibliographical contributions. To: The following colleagues for their constructive criticism or useful comments: René Benders, University of Groningen Joop de Boer, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Jeroen van den Bergh, Autonomous University of Barcelona William C. Clark, Harvard University Cambridge Michiel van Drunen, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Jodi de Greef, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP) Bilthoven Wander Jager, University of Groningen D. Jimenez-Beltran, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen Andrew Johnson, White Horse Press, Strond UK Paul de Jongh, Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, The Hague Henk Moll, University of Groningen Roland Scholz, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zürich Jan van der Straaten, Saxifraga Foundation Tilburg Egbert Tellegen, Utrecht University Amsterdam, August 2008 Jan J. Boersema and Lucas Reijnders ix Contents Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Part I Stating the Problem 1 Environmental Sciences, Sustainability, and Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Jan J. Boersema 2 Biogeochemical Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Lucas Reijnders 3 Reconstructing Environmental Changes over the Last 3 Million Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 A. M. Mannion 4 Environmental History: Object of Study and Methodology . . . . . . . . 25 Petra J. E. M. van Dam and S. Wybren Verstegen 5 Human Environmental History Since the Origin of Agriculture . . . . 33 Clive Ponting 6 Recent Developments and Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Lucas Reijnders, Jan Bakkes, and Klaas van Egmond Part II Principles and Methods 7 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Craig Dilworth 8 Specifi c Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Lucas Reijnders 9 Social Science and Environmental Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Linda Steg and Charles Vlek 10 The Natural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Piet H. Nienhuis with contributions of Egbert Boeker (Sections 10.2 and 10.3) xi xii Contents 11 Analytical Tools for the Environment-Economy Interaction. . . . . . . . 177 Paul Ekins 12 Analysis of Physical Interactions Between the Economy and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Helias A. Udo de Haes and Reinout Heijungs 13 Environmental Policy Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Gjalt Huppes and Udo E. Simonis 14 Environmental Institutions and Learning: Perspectives from the Policy Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Matthijs Hisschemöller, Jan Eberg, Anita Engels, and Konrad von Moltke† 15 Technology for Environmental Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Karel Mulder 16 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Jan J. Boersema 17 Environmental Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 H.J.M. (Bert) de Vries 17A An Illustration of the LCA Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Reinout Heijungs 18 Integrated Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Jean-Paul Hettelingh, Bert J. M. de Vries, and Leen Hordijk Part III Context and Perspectives 19 Environmental Policies in Their Cultural and Historical Contexts . . 423 Maurie J. Cohen 20 National Policy Styles and Waste Management in The Netherlands and Bavaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Jan Eberg 21 Land Use in Zimbabwe and Neighbouring Southern African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Ignas M. A. Heitkönig and Herbert H. T. Prins 22 Climate Change Policy of Germany, UK and USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Richard van der Wurff 23 Technical Progress, Finite Resources and Intergenerational Justice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Wilfred Beckerman 24 Sustainability Is an Objective Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Herman E. Daly 25 A Rejoinder to Wilfred Beckerman and Herman Daly . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Roefi e Hueting