Primer 02 Antibacterial Resistance Primer Patrick R. Murray, Ph.D. Worldwide Director, Scientific Affairs Becton Dickinson Diagnostics Adjunct Professor, Dept. of Pathology University of Maryland Baltimore, Maryland (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 1 DISCLOSURES Financial Relationships with Relevant Commercial Interests • Becton Dickinson Diagnostics – Employee and stockholder/ownership interest (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 2 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests • Standardized, reproducible methods for assessing antibiotic activity • Variety of test methods for “routine” tests have been developed including manual and automated methods that can provide results either rapidly or after overnight incubation. • Guidelines for performing the tests are defined in the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) documents. • Specialized tests developed for specific applications – Beta‐lactamase tests (e.g., nitrocephin test; ESBL test, modified Hodge test) – Methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus (mecA test) – Inducible clindamycin resistance (D test) (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 3 CLSI Documents ‐ Examples • M2 – Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests • M7 – Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria that Grow Aerobically • M11 – Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria • M24 – Susceptibility Testing of Mycobacteria, Nocardiae, and Other Aerobic Actinomycetes • M27 – Reference Method for Broth Dilution Antifungal Susceptibility Testing of Yeasts • M33 ‐ Antiviral Susceptibility Testing: Herpes Simplex Virus • M44 – Method for Antifungal Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Testing of Yeasts • M100 – Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 4 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests • Two general forms of susceptibility tests are used: • Antibiotic dilution in agar (rarely used today) or broth • Antibiotic diffusion in agar • Agar and broth dilution • Serial dilutions of antibiotics are added to either broth or agar and then inoculated with the test organism. • After incubation for a defined time, the minimum concentration of the antibiotic than inhibits the test organism (MIC) is determined. • Agar diffusion • Antibiotics in a paper disk (e.g. Kirby‐Bauer) or strip (E test) is placed onto a lawn of bacteria. • After overnight incubation, the size of the area of inhibited bacterial growth is correlated to antibiotic susceptibility or resistance. • Results of dilution and diffusion tests are directly related. (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 5 Broth Dilution Tests • Broth dilution tests are most commonly performed in microtiter trays. In this example, 8 antibiotics (A‐H) are serially diluted. Growth in the lowest antibiotic concentrations is indicated by turbidity (arrow); inhibition of growth by clear wells. • The endpoint (MIC) is influenced by: – Susceptibility test medium – Concentration of the test organisms – Stability of the antibiotic – Incubation conditions (time, temperature, atmosphere) – Susceptibility of the organism to the antibiotic • If all variables are controlled, then the MIC = susceptibility (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 6 Kirby‐Bauer Disk Diffusion • A suspension of the test organism is spread over the agar surface and then antibiotic disks are placed on the plate. Areas of inhibited growth form after overnight incubation. • The size of the zone of inhibited growth is influenced by: – Susceptibility test medium – Concentration of the test organisms – Incubation conditions – Rate of growth of the test organism – Concentration of the antibiotic in the disk – Diffusion of the antibiotic in the agar – Susceptibility of the organism to the antibiotic • Interpretive standards are developed for each antibiotic correlating the size of the zone of inhibition with MIC values when the test is performed under standardized conditions. (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 7 E Test • Essentially an agar diffusion test • Varying concentrations of an antibiotic are spotted on the commercially prepared strip. • Diffusion of the antibiotics on a lawn of bacteria establishes a gradient of concentrations; progressively increasing circles of inhibited growth form around each antibiotic spot on the strip merging into an elliptical pattern. • Point where zone of inhibited growth intersects with the strip is calibrated to correspond to the MIC. (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 8 “Automated” Susceptibility Tests • Commercial companies have automated broth dilution susceptibility tests, combining identification tests with antimicrobial susceptibility tests. – BD Phoenix ID/AST system – Siemens MicroScan ID/AST system – Vitek 2 ID/AST system • The tests systems, based on broth dilution tests, are widely used, generally accurate, and frequently can provide results rapidly (6‐8 hr for many organism‐antibiotic combinations) • One compromise – in order to provide testing of a wide spectrum of antibiotics, only a limited number of antibiotic concentrations are tested. (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 9 Antibiotic Resistance: Mechanisms, Susceptibility Patterns, and In Vitro Tests • Bacterial resistance to specific groups of antibiotics can either be innate or acquired; additionally, expression of resistance can be constitutive (always expressed) or inducible. • An understanding of resistance mechanisms is important for predicting resistance in bacteria species as well as selecting the appropriate test for determining resistance. • Mechanisms of resistance, as well as susceptibility patterns and tests, will be presented for the following classes of antibiotics: β‐lactams Glycopeptides Aminoglycosides Macrolides Clindamycin Tetracyclines Linezolid Quinolones Lipopeptides Streptogramins Trimethoprim‐Sulfamethoxazole (c) 2013 Infectious Disease Board Review Course 10
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