Prevalence of ocular pathology in adult captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) by Christie Boucher Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MMedVet(Ophthal) Compa nion Animal Clinical Studies Faculty of Veterinary Science University of Pretoria April 2017 © University of Pretoria Dissertation Prevalence of ocular pathology in adult captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) Christie Boucher 94288870 Supervisor: Dr Izak Venter Department: Ophthalmic Clinic Companion Animal Clinical Studies Faculty of Veterinary Science University: University of Pretoria ii © University of Pretoria DEDICATIONS I dedicate this thesis to my husband, my strong pillar, who understands me, who encouraged, supported and helped me to pursue my dreams. To my kids, Charlie and Celeste who ensure that I keep my life balanced. Thank you for helping me to see the world through your eyes. ‘The eyes tell more than words could ever say’ iii © University of Pretoria ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to pay special gratitude, warmth and appreciation to the persons below who made my research successful and assisted me achieving my goal: My supervisor, Dr Izak Venter, for his vital support, assistance and generous giving of his selfless time. Dr Antony Goodhead, for his help, support and positive attitude throughout my post graduate studies. Professor Peter Thompson for assisting with the statistical analyses. Professor Kirberger for his expert opinion, constant motivation and support. Mrs Zelda Coetzer for kindly editing the dissertation. Axim for their technical support The Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies and Roy Johnston for their assistance in the funding of this project. Peter Caldwell and the staff of Old Chapel Veterinary Clinic for always being willing to help with the data collection and cheetah examinations. Ann van Dyk for encouraging the research to be performed on her cheetahs, to which she has dedicated her life. AfriCat Foundation for all the help, support and dedication to this project. My parents, parents in law and friends, for their moral and emotional support. iv © University of Pretoria DECLARATION I, Dr Christie Boucher, the author of the thesis title: “Prevalence of ocular pathology in captive adult cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)”, received ethics clearance for this project (V038-14) from the University of Pretoria Animal Ethics Committee on the30thof June 2014 (Appendix 4). I have upheld the ethical standards required in the University of Pretoria’s Code of ethics for researchers and the Policy guidelines for the responsible research. I hereby declare that the research presented in this dissertation was conceived and executed by myself, under the guidance of my supervisor, Dr I Venter. Neither the substance, nor any part of the dissertation has been submitted in the past for a degree at the University of Pretoria or any other University. This dissertation is presented as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Veterinary Science. The content of this thesis is original and has not been plagiarised. Signature: _________________ Date: 2017-03-31 v © University of Pretoria TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATIONS .................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................... iv DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... vi SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ viii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 3 2.1 Ophthalmic Examination ................................................................................................ 3 2.1.1 Schirmer Tear Test ......................................................................................................... 3 2.1.2 Intraocular Pressure ........................................................................................................ 5 2.1.3 Slit-lamp Biomicroscopy ................................................................................................ 11 2.1.4 Ophthalmoscopy ........................................................................................................... 12 2.1.5 Fluorescein Dye Test .................................................................................................... 13 2.1.6 Ultrasonography ............................................................................................................ 14 2.2 Ocular Infectious Diseases ........................................................................................... 17 2.2.1 Feline Coronavirus ........................................................................................................ 17 2.2.2 Feline Herpesvirus 1 ..................................................................................................... 18 2.2.3 Feline Leukaemia Virus ................................................................................................. 19 2.2.4 Feline Immunodeficiency Virus ..................................................................................... 20 2.2.5 Feline Panleukopenia .................................................................................................... 20 2.2.6 Bartonellosis .................................................................................................................. 22 2.2.7 Toxoplasmosis .............................................................................................................. 23 2.2.8 Cryptococcosis ............................................................................................................... 24 vi © University of Pretoria 2.3 Cataracts...................................................................................................................... 24 2.4 Retina .......................................................................................................................... 27 2.5 Miscellaneous .............................................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER 3. OBJECTIVES, BENEFITS AND HYPOTHESIS .......................................... 30 3.1 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 Benefits ........................................................................................................................ 30 3.3 Hypothesis ................................................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER 4. MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................... 31 4.1 Model System .............................................................................................................. 31 4.2 Study Design ................................................................................................................ 34 4.3 Patient Selection .......................................................................................................... 34 4.4 Study Procedures ......................................................................................................... 35 4.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 44 4.6 Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 6. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 62 6.1 STT .............................................................................................................................. 62 6.2 Tonometry .................................................................................................................... 63 6.3 Ultrasound .................................................................................................................... 64 6.4 Cornea ......................................................................................................................... 65 6.5 Cataracts...................................................................................................................... 65 6.6 Retina .......................................................................................................................... 66 6.7 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 69 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 70 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 71 APPENDICES..................................................................................................................... 92 vii © University of Pretoria SUMMARY Objective: To determine the prevalence of ocular pathology in captive adult cheetahs. Materials and Methods: An ophthalmic examination was performed on 73 cheetahs, between the ages of 1 to 14 years, while undergoing immobilisation for their routine health check. The population of adult cheetahs within the Ann van Dyk Cheetah Centre and the AfriCat Foundation was used for the research project. Results: The most prevalent pathological lesions were cataracts (10%). Most of the cataracts were found bilaterally, at the posterior extremity of the lens, in young cheetahs (1 - 6 years), from the Ann van Dyk Cheetah Centre, while only one unilateral cataract was found at the AfriCat Foundation. Three siblings, from Ann van Dyk Cheetah Centre, were found to have the same type of cataracts and fundic lesions. These fundic lesions resembled retinal dysplasia. No fundic pathology was found in the cheetahs at the AfriCat Foundation. A unique retinal pigment was observed in 71.8% of the cheetahs. This was equally distributed throughout both centres. Conclusions: These types of cataracts and fundic lesions could indicate hereditary, congenital or nutritional causes. This is a concern because of the future implications it could have on breeding programs and the cheetah species. Regular detailed ophthalmic examination in the cheetah can help with the early diagnosis and treatment of ocular lesions and may prove beneficial to the management of breeding programmes. viii © University of Pretoria LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The Ann van Dyk Cheetah Centre. ................................................................... 33 Figure 2. Cheetah at the Shingwedzi Centre. ................................................................... 33 Figure 3. The AfriCat Foundation’s logo. .......................................................................... 33 Figure 4. Map indicating the location of the Okonjima Farm, home of the AfriCat Foundation in Namibia. ..................................................................................... 34 Figure 5. The cheetah being carried on a stretcher from the vehicle. ............................... 40 Figure 6. Weighing the cheetah at the Shingwedzi Centre. .............................................. 40 Figure 7. Blood being collected from the medial saphenous vein of the cheetah. ............ 40 Figure 8. Close up of blood being collected from the medial saphenous vein. ................. 41 Figure 9. The Schirmer tear test is being taken in both eyes of this cheetah. ................... 41 Figure 10. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy of the cheetah eye. ..................................................... 41 Figure 11. Indirect ophthalmoscopy examination of a cheetah.. ......................................... 42 Figure 12. Fundus imaging of a cheetah with a Volk Pictor Plus Ophthalmic camera. ....... 42 Figure 13. Ocular ultrasonography of the left eye of the cheetah. ...................................... 42 Figure 14. Biometry of an adult cheetah eye with B-mode ultrasonography. 1- Axial globe length. 2- axial lens thickness. 3- anterior chamber depth. 4- posterior segment depth. .............................................................................. 43 Figure 15. Cheetah recovering in a cheetah crate after immobilisation and examination. .. 43 Figure 16. B-mode ultrasound o f an adult cheetah eye. ..................................................... 52 Figure 17. An old laceration in the leading edge of the third eyelid membrane of the cheetah. ............................................................................................................ 56 Figure 18. Symblepharon between the third eyelid, the palpebral conjunctiva and medial cornea of the cheetah. ........................................................................... 56 Figure 19. An old lesion in the dorso-lateral cornea of the right eye of the cheetah. Note the corneal oedema, anterior synechia and the dyscoric pupil. ................. 56 Figure 20. An immature posterior subcapsular cataract in the right eye of the cheetah. ..... 57 Figure 21. Immature focal nuclear cataract in the left eye of the cheetah. .......................... 57 Figure 22. An immature, anterior subcapsular cataract in the right eye of the cheetah... ... 57 ix © University of Pretoria Figure 23. Normal fundus image of a cheetah. .................................................................. 58 Figure 24. Multiple retinal hyperpigmentation areas in the tapetum of the cheetah. ........... 58 Figure 25. Multiple areas of hypo- and hyperreflectivity in the tapetum and on the border line of the tapetum and non-tapetal area are illustrated. An area of depigmentation with possible choroidal hypoplasia dorsolateral to the ONH is also visible. Note the small focal immature cataract which leads to the obscured visualisation of the fundus in the cheetah. ......................................... 58 Figure26. Mild retinal pigmentation in the visual streak of the cheetah. ............................. 59 Figure27. Marked increased retinal pigment in the medial and lateral area of the visual streak in the cheetah. .............................................................................. 59 Figure 28. Advanced increased retinal pigment in the medial and lateral area of the visual streak. Note the small focal immature cataract, which lead to obscured visualisation of the fundus of the cheetah. ......................................... 59 Figure 29. An ultrasound image of a small immature posterior cortical cataract in the cheetah.. ........................................................................................................... 60 Figure 30. An ultrasound image of a focal immature posterior cortical cataract in the cheetah.. ........................................................................................................... 60 Figure 31. An ultrasound image of a small immature nuclear cataract in the cheetah... 61 Figure 32. Ultrasound image of an immature anterior and posterior subcapsular cataract in the cheetah. ..................................................................................... 61 x © University of Pretoria