Practical Electronics for Inventors This page intentionally left blank. Practical Electronics for Inventors Paul Scherz McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington,D.C. Auckland Bogotá Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto abc McGraw-Hill Copyright ©2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 0-07-138990-3 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-058078-2. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. 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DOI: 10.1036/0071389903 CONTENTS Preface CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics 1 CHAPTER 2 Theory 5 2.1 Current 5 2.2 Voltage 7 2.3 Resistance 8 2.4 DC Power Sources 9 2.5 Two Simple Battery Sources 10 2.6 Electric Circuits 10 2.7 Ohm’s Law 11 2.8 Circuit Reduction 11 2.9 Kirchhoff’s Laws 14 2.10 Thevenin’s Theorem 17 2.11 Sinusoidal Power Sources 20 2.12 Root Mean Square (rms) Voltages 20 2.13 Capacitors 21 2.14 Reactance of a Capacitor 23 2.15 Inductors 24 2.16 Reactance of an Inductor 26 2.17 Fundamental Potentials and Circuits 26 2.18 DC Sources and RC/RL/RLCCircuits 28 2.19 Complex Numbers 30 2.20 Circuits with Sinusoidal Sources 33 2.21 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex Impedances 34 v Copyright 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click Here for Terms of Use. vi Contents 2.22 Impedances in Series and the Voltage Divider 38 2.23 Impedances in Parallel and the Current Divider 39 2.24 Applying Kirchhoff’s Laws in AC Form 39 2.25 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form 43 2.26 Power in AC Circuits 44 2.27 Decibels 45 2.28 Resonance in LC Circuits 46 2.29 Resonance in RLC Circuits 47 2.30 Filters 48 2.31 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources 53 2.32 Circuits with Nonperiodic Sources 55 2.33 Nonlinear Circuits and Analyzing Circuits by Intuition 55 CHAPTER 3 Basic Electronic Circuit Components 59 3.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors 59 3.1.1 Wires 59 3.1.2 Cables 61 3.1.3 Connectors 63 3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols 66 3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects within Wires and Cables 66 3.2 Batteries 76 3.2.1 How a Cell Works 77 3.2.2 Primary Batteries 79 3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries 80 3.2.4 Secondary Batteries 81 3.2.5 Battery Capacity 83 3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery 83 3.3 Switches 84 3.3.1 How a Switch Works 84 3.3.2 Describing a Switch 85 3.3.3 Kinds of Switches 86 3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications 88 3.4 Relays 89 3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays 91 3.4.2 AFew Notes about Relays 92 3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits 93 3.5 Resistors 93 3.5.1 How a Resistor Works 94 3.5.2 Basic Resistor Operation 95 3.5.3 Types of Fixed Resistors 96 3.5.4 Understanding Resistor Labels 97 3.5.5 Power Ratings for Resistors 98 3.5.6 Variable Resistors 98 vii Contents 3.6 Capacitors 99 3.6.1 How a Capacitor Works 100 3.6.2 ANote about I =CdV/dt 101 3.6.3 Water Analogy of a Capacitor 101 3.6.4 Basic Capacitor Functions 102 3.6.5 Kinds of Capacitors 103 3.6.6 Variable Capacitors 105 3.6.7 Reading Capacitor Labels 105 3.6.8 Important Things to Know about Capacitors 105 3.6.9 Applications 106 3.7 Inductors 108 3.7.1 How an Inductor Works 108 3.7.2 Basic Inductor Operation 110 3.7.3 Kinds of Coils 111 3.8 Transformers 112 3.8.1 Basic Operation 115 3.8.2 Special Kinds of Transformers 116 3.8.3 Applications 117 3.8.4 Real Kinds of Transformers 118 3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers 119 3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers 120 CHAPTER 4 Semiconductors 123 4.1 Semiconductor Technology 123 4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor? 123 4.1.2 Applications of Silicon 128 4.2 Diodes 129 4.2.1 How a pn-Junction Diode Works 129 4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy 131 4.2.3 Basic Applications 131 4.2.4 Important Things to Know about Diodes 135 4.2.5 Zener Diodes 136 4.2.6 Zener Diode Water Analogy 136 4.2.7 Basic Applications for Zener Diodes 136 4.3 Transistors 138 4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors 138 4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors 140 4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors 158 4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 168 4.3.5 Unijunction Transistors 177 4.4 Thyristors 181 4.4.1 Introduction 181 4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 182 4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches 185 4.4.4 Triacs 186 4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs 189 viii Contents CHAPTER 5 Optoelectronics 191 5.1 ALittle Lecture on Photons 191 5.2 Lamps 193 5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 196 5.3.1 How an LED Works 196 5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs 197 5.3.3 Technical Stuff about LEDs 198 5.3.4 Basic LED Operations 200 5.4 Photoresistors 201 5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works 202 5.4.1 Technical Stuff 202 5.4.2 Applications 202 5.5 Photodiodes 203 5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works 204 5.5.2 Basic Operations 204 5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes 205 5.6 Solar Cells 205 5.6.1 Basic Operations 206 5.7 Phototransistors 206 5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works 207 5.7.2 Basic Configurations 208 5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors 208 5.7.4 Technical Stuff 208 5.7.5 Applications 209 5.8 Photothyristors 210 5.8.1 How LASCRs Work 210 5.8.1 Basic Operation 211 5.9 Optoisolators 211 5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators 212 5.9.2 Applications 212 CHAPTER 6 Integrated Circuits 213 6.1 IC Packages 214 6.2 Some Basic ICs to Get You Started 216 CHAPTER 7 Operational Amplifiers 219 7.1 Operational Amplifier Water Analogy 220 7.2 How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation) 221 7.3 Theory 222 7.4 Negative Feedback 223 7.5 Positive Feedback 228 7.6 Real Kinds of Op Amps 229 7.7 Op Amp Specifications 231 ix Contents 7.8 Powering Op Amps 233 7.9 Some Practical Notes 234 7.10 Voltage and Current Offset Compensation 235 7.11 Frequency Compensation 236 7.12 Comparators 236 7.13 Comparators with Hysteresis 238 7.13.1 Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis 238 7.13.2 Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis 239 7.14 Using Single-Supply Comparators 240 7.15 Window Comparator 240 7.16 Voltage-Level Indicator 241 7.17 Applications 241 CHAPTER 8 Filters 247 8.1 Things to Know before You Start Designing Filters 248 8.2 Basic Filters 249 8.3 Passive Low-Pass Filter Design 250 8.4 ANote on Filter Types 254 8.5 Passive High-Pass Filter Design 254 8.6 Passive Bandpass Filter Design 256 8.7 Passive Notch Filter Design 258 8.8 Active Filter Design 259 8.8.1 Active Low-Pass Filter Example 260 8.8.2 Active High-Pass Filter Example 261 8.8.3 Active Bandpass Filters 262 8.8.4 Active Notch Filters 264 8.9 Integrated Filter Circuits 265 CHAPTER 9 Oscillators and Timers 267 9.1 RC Relaxation Oscillators 268 9.2 The 555 Timer IC 270 9.2.1 How a 555 Works (Astable Operation) 271 9.2.2 Basic Astable Operation 272 9.2.3 How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation) 273 9.2.4 Basic Monostable Operation 274 9.2.5 Some Important Notes about 555 Timers 274 9.2.6 Simple 555 Applications 275 9.3 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) 276 9.4 Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators 277 9.5 LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators) 277 9.6 Crystal Oscillators 280