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ttribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 2.5 Switzerland You are free: to Share — to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Noncommercial. You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works. You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. • For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this work. The best way to do this is with a link to this web page. • Any of the above conditions can be waived if you get permission from the copyright holder. • Nothing in this license impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Your fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. This is a human-readable summary of the Legal Code (the full license) available in German: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ch/legalcode.de Disclaimer: The Commons Deed is not a license. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the Legal Code (the full license) — it is a human-readable expression of some of its key terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the Legal Code beneath. This Deed itself has no legal value, and its contents do not appear in the actual license. Creative Commons is not a law firm and does not provide legal services. Distributing of, displaying of, or linking to this Commons Deed does not create an attorney-client relationship. Quelle: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ch/deed.en Datum: 3.4.2009 Abstract Adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage, a phenomenon that is considered responsible for a great part of Earthʼs biodiversity. It occurs as a response to ecological opportunity in the form of competitor-free habitat, extinction of antagonists, or the emergence of a key innovation. One of the most spectacular adaptive radiations in the marine realm is the diversification of notothenioid fishes in the freezing waters of Antarctica. This radiation has led to a unique dominance of the Antarctic marine habitat by notothenioids, and is often assumed to result from the key innovation of freeze resistance. Antifreeze glycoproteins are present in blood and tissue of Antarctic notothenioids and enable them to survive in their sub-zero environment. Notothenioids are further characterized by prolonged pelagic larval stages, that have been suggested to contribute to high levels of inter-population gene flow with oceanic currents, which seems to contradict the high speciation rates observed in the notothenioid adaptive radiation. This doctoral work uses molecular tools to investigate the character of gene flow in notothenioids as well as the origin of their diversification. It is demonstrated that larval dispersal is a common agent of long-distance gene flow in many notothenioid species. The key innovation hypothesis is corroborated by an extensive molecular dating of the divergence events of notothenioids and related acanthomorph fishes. New tools for the analysis of microsatellite markers and for Bayesian divergence date estimation are developed. 3 4 Table of Contents I" Introduction" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.1" Matschiner M, Hanel R, Salzburger W (2010) Phylogeography and speciation processes in marine fishes and fishes from large freshwater lakes. In: Phylogeography: concepts, intra-specific patterns and speciation processes (ed Rutgers DS), pp. 1 - 29. Nova Science Publishers, New York. 1.1.1" Review". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 II" Population Structure" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.1" Matschiner M, Hanel R, Salzburger W (2009) Gene flow by larval dispersal in the Antarctic notothenioid fish Gobionotothen gibberifrons. Molecular Ecology 18: 2574-2587. 2.1.1" Article". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.1.2" Supporting Information" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 2.2" Damerau M, Matschiner M, Salzburger W, Hanel R: Comparative population genetics of seven notothenioid fish species reveals high levels of gene flow along ocean currents in the southern Scotia Arc, Antarctica. Submitted to Polar Biology. 2.2.1" Article" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 2.2.2" Supporting Information" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.3" Matschiner M, Salzburger W (2009) TANDEM: integrating automated allele binning into genetics and genomics workflows. Bioinformatics 25: 1982-1983. 2.3.1" Article". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 2.3.2" Supporting Information". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.3.3" Manual of TANDEM". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 III" Phylogenetics". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 3.1" Matschiner M, Hanel R, Salzburger W (2011) On the origin and trigger of the notothenioid adaptive radiation. PLoS ONE 6: e18911. 3.1.1" Article". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 3.1.2" Supporting Information" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5 3.2" Matschiner M: Bayesian divergence priors based on probabilities of lineage non- preservation. Submitted to Systematic Biology. 3.2.1" Article". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 3.2.2." Supporting Information" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 3.2.3." Manual of R package ʻagepriorʼ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 3.3" Rutschmann S, Matschiner M, Damerau M, Muschick M, Lehmann MF, Hanel R, Salzburger W (2011) Parallel ecological diversification in Antarctic notothenioid fishes as evidence for adaptive radiation. Molecular Ecology 20: 4707-4721. 3.3.1" Cover". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 3.3.2" Article". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 3.3.3" Supporting Information". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 IV" Fieldwork". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 4.1" Mintenbeck K, Damerau M, Hirse T, Knust R, Koschnick N, Matschiner M, Rath L: Biodiversity and zoogeography of demersal fish. In: The expedition of the research vessel "Polarstern" to the Antarctic in 2011 (ANT-XXVII/3) (ed Knust R). Ber Polar Meeresforschg. In press. 4.1.1" Report". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 4.2" Damerau M, Hanel R, Matschiner M, Salzburger W: 3.2 Notothenioidei. In: The expedition of the research vessel "Polarstern" to the Antarctic in 2011 (ANT-XXVII/3) (ed Knust R). Ber Polar Meeresforschg. In press. 4.2.1" Report". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 V" Discussion". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Acknowledgements". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Curriculum vitae". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 6 I Introduction Adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage and is commonly claimed responsible for the genesis of a great portion of the diversity of life (Simpson 1953, Schluter 2000). According to Schluter (2000), an adaptive radiation is characterized by rapid speciation, common ancestry, and a phenotype-environment correlation, whereby phenotypes must be beneficial in their respective environments. Adaptive radiation is often considered a consequence of ecological opportunity (Simpson 1953, Schluter 2000) arising through colonization of a new habitat with abundant niche-space, the origin of a key innovation, and/or the extinction of antagonists (Yoder et al. 2010). Prime examples for adaptive radiation include the Darwinʼs finches of the Galapagos Islands (Grant & Grant 2002, 2011), the Hawaiian Drosophila diversification (Kambysellis & Craddock 1997) and the impressive radiations of cichlid fishes in the Great Lakes of East Africa (Salzburger 2009). Among very few adaptive radiations identified in the marine realm, the most spectacular one is found within the suborder Notothenioidei. Whereas ancestral notothenioid lineages occur in Australia, New Zealand, and South America, the so-called ʻAntarctic cladeʼ of notothenioid fishes (including the five highly diverse families Nototheniidae, Harpagiferidae, Artedi- draconidae, and Channichthyidae) has radiated in Antarctic waters, and dominates the High Antarctic ichthyofauna in terms of species number (76.6%) and biomass (over 90%) (Eastman 2005). Antarctic waters are unique marine environments, characterized by sub-zero temperatures and the presence of sea ice. At high latitudes, temperatures constantly remain close to the freezing point of seawater at -1.86 ℃ (Eastman 1993). Due to the weight of the continental ice cap, the Antarctic shelf is deeper than the world average (Anderson 1999). Many potential shallow water habitats are inaccessible due to ice foots and anchor ice, and gigantic icebergs regularly rework the bottom topography as deep as 550 m below sea level, so that these habitats are constantly in a state of change or recovery (Barnes & Conlan 2007). The Antarctic shelf areas are separated from other continental shelves by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), which carries more water than any other ocean current (Tomczak & Godfrey 2003) and reaches the ocean floor (Foster 1982). The Southern Ocean is delimited by the Antarctic Polar Front (APF) (Kock 1992), which, among other oceanic frontal zones, poses a physical barrier to marine organisms and thermally isolates the continent (Shaw et al. 2004). Nevertheless, notothenioid fishes have successfully colonized and radiated in these harsh environments. During their diversification, notothenioid fishes have acquired a number of exceptional traits, including mitochondrial gene rearrangements (Papetti et al. 2007, Zhuang & Cheng 2010), the loss of hemoglobin in channichthyids, the loss of the otherwise near-universal heat shock response (Hofmann et al. 2000, Place et al. 2004; Hofmann et al, 2005), and the loss of the swim bladder, which may have supported the mostly benthic life style of nototheniods. However several notothenioid lineages have secondarily colonized the water column in a trend termed pelagization (Klingenberg & Ekau 1996). In order to compensate for the lack of a swim bladder, many of these pelagic notothenioids have evolved adaptations to regain neutral buoyancy. These include reduced ossification, weak mineralization of scales, and lipid deposition in large 7 assemblages of adipose cells (Eastman 1993). In fact, the correlation of habitat (benthic - pelagic) with regained buoyancy strongly supports the ʻadaptivenessʼ of the notothenioid radiation. The most important innovation for notothenioids may have been blood-borne antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs), that are present in members of the Antarctic clade, and enable them to cope with the subzero temperatures of Antarctic waters (Cheng et al. 2003). These proteins evolved from a pancreatic trypsinogen, and and provide the first example of how an existing gene can change to code for a new protein with an entirely different function (Chen et al. 1997). Notothenioid antifreeze glycoproteins evolved only once in notothenioids, prior to the diversification of the Antarctic clade (Chen et al. 1997, Cheng et al. 2003). Consequently, it has often been speculated that antifreeze glyproteins represent a key innovation that has endowed notothenioids with the ability to survive in the cooling waters of Antarctica, and to replace other lineages (Clarke & Johnston 1996). The key innovation hypothesis requires that cooling of the Southern Ocean and extensive sea ice conditions coincided with the emergence of antifreeze glycoproteins. Using a molecular dating of notothenioid fishes and related acanthomorph, this question is elaborated as part of the doctoral work presented here. The characteristics of the notothenioid diversification have been reviewed in comparison with the adaptive radiations of cichlid fishes of the East African Great Lakes, and with the diversification of reef-dwelling labrid fishes. This review appeared as a book chapter: 1.1" Matschiner M, Hanel R, Salzburger W (2010) Phylogeography and speciation processes in marine fishes and fishes from large freshwater lakes. In: Phylogeography: concepts, intra-specific patterns and speciation processes (ed Rutgers DS), pp. 1 - 29. Nova Science Publishers, New York. 1.1.1" Review". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 8 References Anderson JB (1999) Antarctic Marine Geology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Barnes DKA, Conlan KE (2007) Disturbance, colonization and development of Antarctic benthic communities. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 362: 11–38. Chen L, DeVries AL, Cheng C-HC (1997) Convergent evolution of antifreeze glycoproteins in Antarctic notothenioid fish and Arcticÿcod. P Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 3817–3822. Cheng C-HC, Chen L, Near TJ, Jin Y (2003) Functional antifreeze glycoprotein genes in temperate-water New Zealand nototheniid fish infer an Antarctic evolutionary origin. Mol Biol Evol 20: 1897–1908. Clarke A, Johnston IA (1996) Evolution and adaptive radiation of antarctic fishes. Trends Ecol Evol 11: 212–218. Eastman JT (1993) Antarctic Fish Biology: Evolution in a Unique Environment. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA. Eastman JT (2005) The nature of the diversity of Antarctic fishes. Polar Biol 28: 93–107. Foster TD (1982) The marine environment. In: Antarctic Ecology (Ed. Laws RM) Academic Press, London, UK. Grant PR, Grant BR (2011) How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Grant PR, Grant BR (2002) Unpredictable evolution in a 30-year study of Darwin's finches. Science 296: 707–711. Hofmann GE, Buckley BA, Airaksinen S, Keen JE, Somero GN (2000) Heat-shock protein expression is absent in the Antarctic fish Trematomus bernacchii (family Nototheniidae). J Exp Biol 203: 2331–2339. Hofmann GE, Lund SG, Place SP, Whitmer AC (2005) Some like it hot, some like it cold: the heat shock response is found in New Zealand but not Antarctic notothenioid fishes. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 316: 79–89 Kambysellis MP, Craddock EM (1997) Ecological and reproductive shifts in the diversification of the endemic Hawaiian Drosophila. In: Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation (Eds. Givnish TJ, Sytsma KJ), pp. 475–509. Klingenberg CP, Ekau W (1996) A combined morphometric and phylogenetic analysis of an ecomorphological trend: pelagization in Antarctic fishes (Perciformes: Nototheniidae). Biol J Linnean Soc 59: 143–177. Kock K-H (1992) Antarctic Fish and Fisheries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Papetti C, Liò P, Rüber L, Patarnello T, Zardoya R (2007) Antarctic fish mitochondrial genomes lack ND6 gene. J Mol Evol 65: 519–528 Place SP, Zippay ML, Hofmann GE (2004) Constitutive roles for inducible genes: evidence for the alteration in expression of the inducible hsp70 gene in Antarctic notothenioid fishes. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 287: R429–436–R429–436. 9