Polymers in Construction Editor: Güneri Akovali Polymers in Construction Editor: Güneri Akovali rapra TECHNOLOGY Rapra Technology Limited Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 http://www.rapra.net First Published 2005 by Rapra Technology Limited Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, UK ©2005, Rapra Technology Limited All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this publication may be photocopied, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior permission from the copyright holder. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of any material reproduced within the text and the authors and publishers apologize if any have been overlooked. ISBN: 1-85957-468-8 Typeset by Rapra Technology Limited Cover printed by The Printing House Limited, Crewe, UK Printed and bound by Rapra Technology Limited, Shrewsbury, UK Contents Preface...................................................................................................................1 1. Introduction....................................................................................................3 2. The Use of Polymers in Construction: Past and Future Trends......................13 2.1 History of Polymeric Materials............................................................13 2.1.1 Plastics in Building...................................................................16 2.2 Use of Plastics and Rubbers in Construction: Current Status and Trends for the Future ....................................................................22 3. The Use of Plastics in Building Construction.................................................35 3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................35 3.2 Structural Applications of Polymers in Building Construction.............36 3.2.1 Sandwich Panels (SWP) and Sandwich Panel Applications in Housing Construction..........................................................38 3.2.2 All-Composites Housing..........................................................41 3.3 Secondary Structural and Non-Structural Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction ......................................................42 3.3.1 Piping, Electrical Cables, Wiring and Conduit Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction .................42 3.3.2 Cladding and Profile Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction..............................................................45 3.3.3 Insulation Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction............................................................................47 3.3.4 Sealant, Gasket and Adhesive Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction..........................................................54 3.3.5 Roofing and Flooring System Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction..........................................................57 i Polymers in Construction 3.3.6 Glazing, Plastic Lumber, Paint, Wall-Covering, and Other Applications of Polymers in Housing Construction .................59 3.4 Coatings...............................................................................................64 3.4.1 Polymers Used for Coatings.....................................................66 3.4.2 Solvent-Based Coatings............................................................68 3.4.3 Water-Based Coatings..............................................................69 3.4.4 Curing Techniques...................................................................74 3.4.5 Powder Coatings......................................................................76 3.4.6 Intumescent Coatings...............................................................77 3.4.7 Durability of Coatings.............................................................77 3.5 EPDM Membrane: Application in the Construction Industry for Roofing and Waterproofing ...........................................................78 3.5.1 Introduction.............................................................................78 3.5.2 Chemistry of the EPDM Elastomer..........................................79 3.5.3 Process of Manufacture of EPDM Membrane .........................82 3.5.4 Process of Preparation of Adhesive..........................................83 3.5.5 EPDM Polymer Characteristics of Crack Resistance................84 3.5.6 Distinctive Waterproofing Properties of EPDM Membrane.....84 3.5.7 Maintenance Free, Temperature Endured Roof Sheathings......85 3.5.8 Installation Engineering of EPDM Membrane.........................86 3.5.9 Effluent Treatment Plant Lining...............................................87 3.5.10 Ecological and Decorative Gardening Applications .................87 4. Systems for Condensation Control................................................................97 4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................97 4.2 Standard Condensation Control ..........................................................97 4.2.1 Standard Assessment Methods.................................................97 4.2.2 Standard Condensation Control in Building Practice...............99 4.3 Controlling Air Leakage ....................................................................101 4.3.1 Moisture Accumulation Due to Air Leakage..........................101 4.3.2 Thermal Effects of Air Movement .........................................103 ii CCoonntteennttss 4.3.3 Air Barrier Systems and Requirements: The Canadian Example..........................................................105 4.3.4 Air Leakage Control in Building Practice...............................106 4.4 A Systems Approach to Condensation Control..................................107 4.4.1 Warm Roof Designs...............................................................107 4.4.2 Condensation Control Systems..............................................109 5. Use of Polymers in Civil Engineering Applications......................................115 5.1 Geotechnical Engineering Applications..............................................115 5.1.1 General..................................................................................115 5.1.2 Geosynthetic Properties and Testing ......................................118 5.1.3 Use of Geosynthetics in Roadways, Pavements, Runways and Railways..........................................................120 5.1.4 Use of Geosynthetics in Drainage and Erosion Control Systems.....................................................................123 5.1.5 Use of Geosynthetics in Soil Reinforcement Applications ......124 5.1.6 Use of Geosynthetics in Waste Disposal Facilities ..................124 5.1.7 Miscellaneous Applications of Geosynthetics.........................127 5.2 Polymers in Concrete.........................................................................128 5.2.1 Polymer Concrete ..................................................................128 5.2.2 Polymer Portland Cement Concrete.......................................132 5.2.3 Polymer Impregnated Concrete..............................................134 5.2.4 Polymer Based Admixtures for Concrete ...............................136 5.2.5 Polymeric Fibres in Fibre Reinforced Concrete......................143 5.3 Use of Polymeric Materials in Repair and Strengthening of Structures...144 5.3.1 Types of FRP Composites ......................................................144 5.3.2 Methods of Forming FRP Composites...................................145 5.3.3 Mechanical Properties of FRP Composites ............................147 5.3.4 Bond Strength of FRP-to-Concrete Joints ..............................150 5.3.5 Bond Strength Models ...........................................................152 5.3.6 Flexural Strengthening of RC Beams .....................................153 iii Polymers in Construction 5.3.7 Shear Strengthening of RC Beams..........................................155 5.3.8 Strengthening of RC Slabs .....................................................157 5.3.9 Strengthening of RC Columns ...............................................159 5.3.10 Strengthening of Masonry Walls and Infills ...........................161 6. Plastics and Plastics Composites: A Perspective on their Chemistry and Mechanics............................................................................................169 6.1 Chemistry of Plastics..........................................................................169 6.1.1 Molecular Weight ..................................................................169 6.1.2 Synthesis of Polymers.............................................................172 6.1.3 Classification .........................................................................181 6.1.4 Physical Structure ..................................................................183 6.1.5 Morphology Changes in Polymers.........................................184 6.1.6 Mechanical Properties............................................................187 6.1.7 Mechanical Models................................................................189 6.1.8 Thermal Properties ................................................................189 6.1.9 Weathering and Other Properties...........................................189 6.2 Additives............................................................................................190 6.2.1 Introduction...........................................................................190 6.2.2 Classification and Types of Plastics Additives........................190 6.3 Structure-Property Relationships .......................................................199 6.3.1 Control of Tm and Tg..............................................................................................199 6.3.2 Effect of Macromolecular Skeleton........................................199 6.3.3 Effect of Different Side Groups..............................................201 6.3.4 Some Structure-Property Relations of Polymers as Regards Building and Construction .......................................203 6.4 Polymer Composites ..........................................................................208 6.4.1 Introduction, Definitions and Classifications.........................208 6.4.2 Chemical Structure of the Polymer Matrix ............................212 6.4.3 Structure of Reinforcing Components....................................224 6.4.4 On The Mechanics of PMC...................................................231 iv CCoonntteennttss 7. Plastics and Polymer Composites: A Perspective on Properties Related to their use in Construction............................................................237 7.1 Foams ................................................................................................237 7.1.1 Foaming (Blowing) Agents.....................................................240 7.1.2 Foam Manufacturing Technologies........................................242 7.1.3 Thermoplastic Foams.............................................................243 7.1.4 Thermosetting Foams ............................................................246 7.1.5 Special Foams ........................................................................250 7.2 Ageing................................................................................................252 7.3 Electrostaticity...................................................................................255 7.4 Fire Safety..........................................................................................257 7.4.1 Flammability of Polymer Foams ............................................264 7.4.2 Flammability of Composites..................................................268 7.5 Environmental Hazards .....................................................................269 7.6 Recycling ...........................................................................................270 7.6.1 Recycling of Some Polymers Used in Building........................272 7.6.2 Reclaim Plastic Scrap.............................................................275 7.6.3 Biodegradable Plastics............................................................275 7.7 Repair and Maintenance....................................................................276 7.7.1 Injection Grouting .................................................................277 7.7.2 Patching.................................................................................277 7.7.3 Coating..................................................................................277 7.7.4 Repair with Polymer Concrete...............................................278 7.7.5 Metals Maintenance ..............................................................279 7.7.6 Repair of Plastics and Their Composites................................279 7.8 Smart Materials and Structures..........................................................279 7.8.1 Examples of Smart Materials.................................................281 8. Sustainable Construction ............................................................................303 8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................303 v Polymers in Construction 8.2 Resource-Efficiency and Sustainable Construction.............................303 8.2.1 Brief History of Sustainable Construction..............................304 8.2.2 Resource-Efficiency as a Key Concept of Sustainable Construction..........................................................................304 8.2.3 Resource-Efficiency Economics..............................................307 8.3 Ecology as the Basis for Resource Efficient Design ............................308 8.3.1 Ecological Concepts...............................................................308 8.3.2 Industrial Ecology as a Starting Point....................................311 8.3.3 Rules of the Production-Consumption System.......................312 8.3.4 The Golden Rules of Eco-Design ...........................................312 8.3.5 Construction Ecology ............................................................313 8.4 Resource Efficiency Strategies for Building Design.............................314 8.4.1 Materials Selection and Design for Deconstruction ...............314 8.4.2 Energy Strategies....................................................................316 8.4.3 Water, Wastewater and Stormwater.......................................318 8.4.4 Land Use................................................................................318 8.4.5 Landscape as a Resource........................................................319 8.5 Case Study.........................................................................................319 8.5.1 Design and Construction .......................................................321 8.5.2 Use and Refurbishment..........................................................322 8.5.3 Demolition/End Use...............................................................322 8.6 Conclusions .......................................................................................323 9. Processing of Individual Plastics Components for House Construction, for Civil and Highway Engineering Applications ........................................325 9.1 Processing of Plastics .........................................................................325 9.1.1 Extrusion...............................................................................325 9.1.2 Moulding...............................................................................327 9.2 Processing of Plastics Composites......................................................330 9.2.1 Processing of (Fibre Reinforced) Thermoset Plastic Composites 331 9.2.2 Processing of Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites....344 9.3 On-Site Processing ..........................................................................345 vi