Edited by MichaelK¨ohl,MichaelaG.Meir, PhilippePapillon,GernotM.Wallner, andSandrinSaile Polymeric Materials for Solar Thermal Applications Related Titles Wolf,E.L. Pagliaro,M.,Palmisano,G.,Ciriminna,R. NanophysicsofSolarand FlexibleSolarCells RenewableEnergy 2008 2012 ISBN:978-3-527-32375-3 ISBN:978-3-527-41052-1 Mathers, R.T.,Meier,M. A.R.(eds.) Vogel,W.,Kalb, H. GreenPolymerizationMethods Large-ScaleSolarThermalPower RenewableStartingMaterials,Catalysis Technologies,CostsandDevelopment andWasteReduction 2010 2011 ISBN:978-3-527-40515-2 ISBN:978-3-527-32625-9 Keyhani, A.,Marwali, M. N.,Dai, M. Stolten, D., Emonts,B.(eds.) IntegrationofGreenandRenewable FuelCellScienceandEngineering EnergyinElectricPowerSystems Materials,Processes,Systemsand Technology 2010 2012 ISBN:978-0-470-18776-0 ISBN:978-3-527-33012-6 Armaroli, N., Balzani, V. EnergyforaSustainableWorld FromtheOilAgetoaSun-Powered Future 2010 ISBN:978-3-527-32540-5 Edited by Michael Köhl, Michaela Georgine Meir, Philippe Papillon, Gernot Michael Wallner, and Sandrin Saile Polymeric Materials for Solar Thermal Applications TheEditors AllbookspublishedbyWiley-VCHarecarefullypro- duced.Nevertheless,authors,editors,andpublisherdo Dr.MichaelKöhl notwarranttheinformationcontainedinthesebooks, Fraunhofer-Institut includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors.Readersare fürSolareEnergiesystemeISE advisedtokeepinmindthatstatements,data,illustra- DepartmentWeatheringandReliability tions,proceduraldetailsorotheritemsmayinadvertently Heidenhofstraße2 beinaccurate. 79110Freiburg Germany LibraryofCongressCardNo.: appliedfor BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData Dr.MichaelaGeorgineMeir Acataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromthe UniversityofOslo BritishLibrary. DepartmentofPhysics POBox1048Blindern Bibliographicinformationpublishedby 0316Oslo theDeutscheNationalbibliothek Norway TheDeutscheNationalbibliothekliststhispublicationin theDeutscheNationalbibliografie;detailedbibliographic Dr.PhilippePapillon dataareavailableontheInternetathttp://dnb.d-nb.de. INESInstitutNationalde l`EnergieSolaire #2012Wiley-VCHVerlag&Co.KGaA, Boitepostale332 Boschstr.12,69469Weinheim,Germany 73377LeBourgetduLac France Allrightsreserved(includingthoseoftranslation intootherlanguages).Nopartofthisbookmaybe reproducedinanyform–byphotoprinting,microfilm,or Prof.Dr.GernotMichaelWallner anyothermeans–nortransmittedortranslatedintoa Johannes-Kepler-Universität machinelanguagewithoutwrittenpermissionfromthe AltenbergerStraße69 publishers.Registerednames,trademarks,etc.usedin 4040Linz thisbook,evenwhennotspecificallymarkedassuch,are Austria nottobeconsidered unprotectedbylaw. SandrinSaile,M.A. Fraunhofer-Institut PrintISBN: 978-3-527-33246-5 fürSolareEnergiesystemeISE ePDFISBN: 978-3-527-65963-0 DepartmentofWeatheringandReliability ePubISBN: 978-3-527-65962-3 Heidenhofstr.2 mobiISBN: 978-3-527-65961-6 79110Freiburg oBookISBN: 978-3-527-65960-9 Germany ISSN: 2194-0665 eISSN: 2194-8135 Composition ThomsonDigital,Noida,India PrintingandBinding MarkonoPrintMediaPteLtd, Singapore PrintedinSingapore Printedonacid-freepaper V Contents About the Editors XV List of Contributors XVII IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme XXI Acknowledgments XXIII PartI 1 1 Principles 3 MarkusPeter 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 SolarIrradianceinTechnicalApplications 6 1.3 QuantifyingUsefulSolarIrradiation 6 1.4 SolarThermalApplications 7 1.5 CalculatingtheSolarContribution 10 1.6 Conclusions 10 2 SolarThermalMarket 13 Karl-AndersWeiß,ChristophZauner, JayBurch,andSandrinSaile 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 CollectorTypes 14 2.2.1 UnglazedCollectors 14 2.2.2 FlatPlateCollectors(FPC) 15 2.2.3 EvacuatedFlatPlateCollector(EFPC) 16 2.2.4 EvacuatedTubeCollectors(ETC) 16 2.2.5 ConcentratingCollectors 16 2.2.6 AirCollectors 18 2.2.7 MarketShareofDifferentCollectorTypes 18 2.3 RegionalMarkets 19 2.4 MarketTrends 22 2.4.1 GlobalMarketDevelopment 22 2.4.2 GlobalMarketForecast 25 2.4.3 FocusonEurope 25 LinksProvidingUpdatedMarketDataandForecasts 26 References 26 VI Contents 3 ThermalSolarEnergyforPolymerExperts 29 PhilippePapillonandClaudiusWilhelms 3.1 SolarThermalSystemsandTechnicalRequirements 29 3.2 OverviewofSolarThermalApplications 29 3.2.1 SwimmingPoolHeatingApplications 31 3.2.2 DomesticHotWaterPreparationforSingleFamilyHouses 33 3.2.3 DomesticHotWaterPreparationforMulti-familyHouses 39 3.2.4 SpaceHeatingandDHWPreparation 40 3.2.5 SolarCoolingApplications 44 3.2.6 SolarAssistedDistrictHeating 47 3.2.7 ProcessHeatApplications 49 3.3 SolarThermalCollectors 50 3.3.1 BasicPrincipleofaSolarThermalCollector 50 3.3.2 UnglazedCollector 53 3.3.3 GlazedFlatPlateCollector 56 3.3.4 EvacuatedTubes 58 3.3.5 OtherTypesofCollectors 60 3.3.6 SelectiveCoatingsforSolarAbsorbers 62 3.4 SmalltoMediumSizeStorages 63 3.4.1 ClassificationofHeatStorages 64 3.4.2 DomesticHotWaterStorages 65 3.4.3 Non-domesticHotWaterStorages 67 3.4.4 Non-waterBasedStorage 68 3.5 SourcesofFurtherInformation 70 3.5.1 RelatedInternationalEnergyAgencySolarHeatingand CoolingTasks 70 3.5.2 WebSitesandProjectsRelatedtoSolarThermalSystems 70 References 70 4 ConventionalCollectors,HeatStores,andCoatings 73 StephanFischer,HaraldDrück,StephanBachmann, ElkeStreicher,JensUllmann,andBeateTraub 4.1 Collectors 73 4.1.1 TransparentCovers 75 4.1.2 AbsorberPlateRisersandManifolds 75 4.1.3 AbsorberCoatings 76 4.1.4 ThermalInsulation 77 4.2 MaterialPropertiesofInsulations 79 4.2.1 Casing 80 4.2.2 Sealing 80 4.2.3 CollectorMountingStructures 80 4.3 HeatStore 81 4.4 OtherComponents 84 4.5 AnalysisofTypicalCombisystems 86 4.5.1 CombisystemsAnalyzed 86 Contents VII 4.5.2 WeightoftheComponents 86 4.5.3 MaterialsUsedintheSystems 86 4.5.4 MaterialsUsedintheComponents 88 4.6 DefinitionofPolymericBasedSolarThermalSystems 92 4.7 Life Cycle Assessment Based on Cumulated Energy Demand, Energy PaybackTime,andOverallEnergySavings 97 4.8 CumulatedEnergyDemand,EnergyPaybackTime,andOverall EnergySavingsforConventionalandPolymericBasedDomestic HotWaterSystems 98 4.8.1 SystemBoundary 100 4.8.2 CumulativeEnergyDemand 100 4.8.2.1 CumulativeEnergyDemandforProduction 100 4.8.3 ConventionalReferenceSystemfortheDeterminationofthe PrimaryEnergySavedbytheSolarThermalSystem 101 4.8.4 FractionalEnergySavings 102 4.8.5 Lifetime 102 4.8.6 CalculationforSolarDomesticHotWaterSystems 102 4.8.6.1 MaterialsandMassesoftheSystemsUsedforthe ReferenceSystem(DHW1) 102 4.8.6.2 MaterialsandMassesoftheSystemsUsedforthePolymeric System(DHW2) 102 4.8.6.3 InputValuesandResultsforDeterminationoftheCED 102 4.8.6.4 OverallEnergySavingsandEnergyPaybackTime 104 References 106 5 ThermalLoadsonSolarCollectorsandOptionsfor theirReduction 107 ChristophReiter,ChristophTrinkl,andWilfriedZörner 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 ResultsofMonitoringTemperatureLoads 107 5.3 MeasuresforReductionoftheTemperatureLoads 114 References 117 6 Standards,PerformanceTestsofSolarThermalSystems 119 StephanFischerandChristophZimmermann 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Collectors 119 6.2.1 TestingofSolarCollectorsforDurabilityandReliability 120 6.2.2 TestingofSolarCollectorsforThermalPerformance 120 6.3 SolarThermalSystems 121 6.3.1 TestingofSolarThermalProducts 124 6.3.1.1 CSTGMethod 125 6.3.1.2 DSTMethod 125 6.3.2 CTSSMethod 125 6.4 Conclusion 125 VIII Contents PartII 127 7 PlasticsMarket 129 KatharinaReschandGernotM.Wallner References 134 8 PolymericMaterials 135 GernotM.Wallner,ReinholdW.Lang,andKarlSchnetzinger 8.1 Introduction 135 8.2 MaterialStructureandMorphologyofPolymers 136 8.3 InnerMobilityandThermalTransitionsofPolymers 143 8.4 PolymerAdditivesandCompounds 146 8.4.1 StabilizingAdditives 147 8.4.2 Antioxidants 147 8.4.3 LightStabilizers 148 8.4.4 ModifyingAdditives 148 References 149 9 Processing 151 9.1 StructuralPolymericMaterials 151 HelmutVogel 9.1.1 IntroductiontoPolymerProcessing 151 9.1.2 ExtrusionBasedProcesses 152 9.1.2.1 ProfileExtrusion 152 9.1.2.2 FilmBlowing 154 9.1.2.2.1 CastFilmExtrusion 154 9.1.2.3 CalenderStackProcessforPlates 155 9.1.2.4 BlowMolding 157 9.1.2.4.1 ExtrusionBlowMolding 159 9.1.2.4.2 InjectionBlowMolding 160 9.1.3 InjectionMolding 161 9.1.3.1 InjectionMoldingCycle 162 9.1.4 Thermoforming 164 9.1.5 FiberReinforcedPolymer 165 9.1.5.1 SheetMoldingCompound(SMC) 165 9.1.5.2 GlassMatThermoplastics(GMT) 165 References 166 9.2 PaintCoatingsforPolymericSolarAbsorbersandTheirApplications 167 IvanJerman,Matja(cid:1)zKo(cid:1)zelj,LidijaSlemenikPers4e,andBorisOrel 9.2.1 OutlineofContent 167 9.2.2 GeneralRemarksaboutSelectivePaintCoatings 168 9.2.3 PreparationofSelectivePaints 169 9.2.3.1 EffectofDispersantsonPigmentDispersions 170 9.2.3.2 Dispersants 171 Contents IX 9.2.3.3 TrisilanolT POSSDispersantsforColoredTISSPaintCoatings 174 7 9.2.4 ApplicationTechniquesforSpectrallySelectivePaints 175 9.2.4.1 BrushandHandRollerApplication 175 9.2.4.2 SprayApplication 176 9.2.4.3 CaseStudy:ApplicationofTISSPaintonaPolymericSubstrate byUsingSimpleSilaneDispersants 178 9.2.4.4 DirectCoatingApplicationTechniques 179 9.2.4.5 DipCoating 180 9.2.4.6 DipandFlowCoating 180 9.2.4.7 RollCoating 182 9.2.4.8 CoilCoating 182 9.2.5 Conclusions 185 References 185 10 PolymerDurabilityforSolarThermalApplications 187 SusanC.MantellandJaneH.Davidson 10.1 Introduction 187 10.2 PolymericGlazing 188 10.3 PolymericAbsorbersandHeatExchangers 189 10.3.1 OverviewofRelevantPolymerMaterialPropertiesand Requirements 191 10.3.2 AdditionalMaterialConsiderations 196 10.3.2.1 FillerstoImproveThermalConductivityandStrength 196 10.3.2.2 Scaling 198 10.3.2.3 Oxidation 199 10.3.3 Absorbers 201 10.3.3.1 MaterialSelection 201 10.3.3.2 PolymerAbsorberApplications 203 10.3.4 HeatExchangers 204 10.3.4.1 MaterialSelection 205 10.3.4.2 PolymerHeatExchangerApplications 205 10.4 Conclusion 206 References 207 11 PlasticsPropertiesandMaterialSelection 211 UlrichEndemannandAndreasMägerlein 11.1 Introduction 211 11.2 HowtoSelecttheRightMaterial 211 11.3 MaterialDatabases 212 11.4 SelectionCriteria 213 11.5 RealLifeExample:StandardCollectorinPlastic(1:1Substitution) 213 11.5.1 Preselection 214 11.5.1.1 Housing 215 11.5.1.2 Absorber 216 11.5.1.3 Sealing 217 X Contents 11.5.1.4 Glazing 217 11.5.1.5 Insulation 217 11.6 Summary 218 PartIII 219 12 StateoftheArt:PolymericMaterialsinSolarThermalApplications 221 MichaelaMeir,FabianOchs,ClaudiusWilhelms,andGernotWallner 12.1 SolarCollectors 221 12.1.1 PoolAbsorbers 221 12.1.2 MaterialSubstitutioninConventionalCollectorDesigns 222 12.1.3 GlazedFlat-PlateCollectorswithPolymericAbsorbers 224 12.1.4 AirCollectorSystems 224 12.1.5 IntegratedStorageCollectorsandThermosiphonSystems 225 12.1.6 CollectorGlazing 227 12.1.7 IntegratedandMultifunctionalApplications 228 12.1.8 AbsorberDesignsfromaPolymerEngineeringPoint ofView 229 12.1.9 Summary 231 12.2 SmalltoMid-SizedPolymericHeatStores 231 12.2.1 Introduction 231 12.2.2 Challenges 235 12.3 PolymericLinersforSeasonalThermalEnergyStores 235 12.3.1 EnvelopeDesignofThermalEnergyStores 236 12.3.2 LinerofPilotandResearchThermalEnergyStores 237 12.3.3 Summary 239 References 241 13.1 StructuralPolymericMaterials–AgingBehaviorofSolarAbsorber Materials 243 SuanneKahlen,GernotM.Wallner,andReinholdW.Lang 13.1.1 IntroductionandScope 243 13.1.2 Methodology 244 13.1.3 Results,Discussion,andOutlook 246 13.1.3.1 CharacterizationofPhysicalandChemicalAgingofPolymeric SolarMaterialsbyMechanicalTesting 246 13.1.3.2 AgingBehaviorofPolymericSolarAbsorberMaterials–Part1: EngineeringPlastics 247 13.1.3.3 AgingBehaviorofPolymericSolarAbsorberMaterials–Part2: CommodityPlastics 248 13.1.3.4 AgingBehaviorandLifetimeModelingforPolymericSolar AbsorberMaterials 249 13.1.3.5 AgingBehaviorofPolymericSolarAbsorberMaterials:Aging onComponentLevel 250 References 252