www.impactjournals.com/oncotarget/ Oncotarget, January, Vol.3, No 1 Polo Like Kinase 2 Tumour Suppressor and cancer biomarker: new perspectives on drug sensitivity/resistance in cancer Helen M. Coley1, Eleftheria Hatzimichael2, Sarah Blagden3, Iain McNeish4, Alastair Thompson5, Tim Crook5 and Nelofer Syed6 1 Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK 2 Department of Hematology, University Hospital of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece 3 Department of Medical Oncology, Hammersmith Hospital, London, W12 0HU, UK 4 Department of Medical Oncology, St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, EC1, UK 5 Dundee Cancer Centre, University of Dundee, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee DD1 9SY, UK 6 Neuro-Oncology Research Group, Charing Cross Hospital, Imperial College, London, W6 8RF, UK Correspondence to: Helen M. Coley, email: [email protected] Keywords: Polo Like Kinases, Chemotherapy resistance, collateral sensitivity Received: September 15, 2011, Accepted: January 26, 2012, Published: January 28, 2012 Copyright: © Coley et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. ABSTRACT: The polo-like kinase PLK2 has recently been identified as a potential theranostic marker in the management of chemotherapy sensitive cancers. The methylation status of the PLK2 CpG island varies with sensitivity to paclitaxel and platinum in ovarian cancer cell lines. Importantly, extrapolation of these in vitro data to the clinical setting confirms that the methylation status of the PLK2 CpG island predicts outcomes in patients treated with carboplatin & paclitaxel chemotherapy. A second cell cycle regulator, p57Kip2, is also subject to epigenetic silencing in carboplatin resistance in vitro and in vivo, emphasising that cell cycle regulators are important determinants of sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents and providing insights into the phenomenon of collateral drug sensitivity in oncology. Understanding the mechanistic basis and identification of robust biomarkers to predict collateral sensitivity may inform optimal use of chemotherapy in patients receiving multiple lines of treatment. INTRODUCTION PLK2 IS EPIGENETICALLY REGULATED IN HAEMATOLOGICAL NEOPLASIA The Polo Like Kinases (Plk) are a family of structurally similar but functionally (relatively) distinct We used suppression: subtraction PCR to identify mitotic kinases all of which share homology with the PLK2 as a gene down-regulated in B lymphomas [4]. Drosophila Polo, mutants of which show defects in Remarkably, Plk2 was subject to methylation-dependent mitosis and meiosis. There are five human Plk which have transcriptional silencing in 100% of Burkitt lymphoma critical roles in regulation of cell cycle and response to (BL) cell lines and a similarly high proportion of primary DNA damage. Whilst there is good experimental evidence BL. The CpG island was also methylated across the that Plk1 may function as an oncogene and indeed is a spectrum of B cell lymphomas and in a proportion of leading target for developmental therapeutics in oncology, cases of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemias (B-CLL), Plk2-Plk5 have properties more consistent with tumour suggesting that the gene is frequently down-regulated in suppressor genes [review 1]. Plk2 was initially identified B cell dyscrasias. More recent studies from our groups as an early response gene in serum-starved cells re- have shown methylation in the PLK2 CpG island in other challenged with serum, hence the original name Serum haematological malignancies including multiple myeloma Inducible Kinase (Snk) [2].. Later it was shown that the [5], acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic gene is a transcriptional target of p53 and activates a syndromes (MDS) [6]. We found that the frequency of G2-M checkpoint [3]. methylation was higher in MDS than in AML (88.4% www.impactjournals.com/oncotarget 78 Oncotarget 2012; 3: 78 - 83 vs 68.9%) and also was significantly higher in low and DYNAMIC EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN THE intermediate risk MDS compared to higher risk groups PLK2 CPG ISLAND METHYLATION WITH (p=0.04). Based on these findings we suggested that PACLITAXEL SENSITIVITY: A MODEL methylation of PLK2 could be another mechanism that FOR DRUG RESISTANCE IN OVARIAN leads to increased apoptosis that characterizes early stage MDS [6]. Another finding in this study was a tendency AND OTHER CANCERS? for improved survival for both AML and MDS patients who displayed hypermethylation of the PLK2 CpG island, The taxanes docetaxel and paclitaxel remain key suggesting that the gene may have a utility as a prognostic chemotherapeutic agents in the treatment of many solid biomarker in myeloid malignancies. In multiple myeloma, tumours, including breast cancer, epithelial ovarian cancer the frequency of aberrant methylation was found to be (EOC), non-small cell lung cancer and prostate cancer. 60%, and although no correlation was found between Resistance to chemotherapy including to the taxanes PLK2 methylation and MTHFR genotypes, anemia, bone remains, however, one of the most important factors disease or advanced stage, a 48% lower risk of death was limiting the ability of oncologists manage neoplastic noted for patients with methylated PLK2 CpG island [5]. disease long term. Whereas a subset of human tumours exhibit clinical hypersensitivity to chemotherapy [7], the majority typically respond transiently to cytotoxic drugs but ultimately acquire resistance leading to treatment A Methylation in tissue at presentation d 100 e at 90 methylssue) 7800 P= 0.003 h (tti 60 witNA 50 n-=34 s D 40 atientPlk2 2300 P % 10 0 g g n n si si p p a a el el R n-r o B N C 1.0 TISSUE 1.0 SERUM al val viv 0.8 rvi 0.8 r u u s s e 0.6 unmethylated ve 0.6 unmethylated v i ti at la 0.4 methylated ul 0.4 u m m methylated u u 0.2 C 0.2 C 0 0 0 20 40 0 20 40 Relapse free survival (months) Relapse free survival (months) Figure 1: Methylation of Plk2 is associated with resistance to chemotherapy in EOC. Genomic DNA was isolated from primary EOC tissue and matched serum. Methylation in the Plk2 CpG island was analysed by MSP as described in Methods. A: MSP analysis of Plk2 in tumour tissue from EOC cases at initial presentation; Solid black panel = patients with subsequent relapse; Shaded panel = patients who had not relapsed at the time of censor. p value given (Fisher’s Exact test). B: Kaplan-Meier analysis of cases with and without Plk2 methylation in tissue at presentation and at relapse as indicated (p = 0.174, Log rank) and C: Kaplan-Meier analysis of cases with and without Plk2 methylation in serum at presentation and at relapse as indicated (p = 0.054, Log rank). Note follow-up period is censored if the patient is still alive at the time of the assessment. Censored data is indicated by (☐). www.impactjournals.com/oncotarget 79 Oncotarget 2012; 3: 78 - 83 failure and death. The time interval between initial associated with a higher risk of relapse in patients treated response and clinical drug resistance varies widely. For post-operatively with carboplatin and paclitaxel and this example, small cell lung cancer demonstrates remarkable trend was also reflected in the analysis of matched serum sensitivity to cisplatin and etoposide in the majority of samples in which detection of methylated PLK2 genomic patients but relapse is inevitable and frequently occurs DNA was more frequent in relapsed cases [9], Figure within weeks of stopping chemotherapy. In EOC, the 1A. Further, we were able to show in the same series that majority of cases are initially sensitive to first-line for patients for whom methylated PLK2 was detected in chemotherapy typically with carboplatin and paclitaxel, either or both tumour tissue and matched serum there was but in contrast to small cell lung cancer sensitivity may be reduced survival, shown by Kaplan-Meier analysis (Figure retained for extended periods of time, with only gradual 1B and 1C). Independent evidence of an important role emergence of drug-resistance. It is standard clinical for Plk2 as a determinant of chemotherapy sensitivity practice to re-challenge EOC patients with platinum-based was afforded by a micro-array study which identified chemotherapy if a disease-free interval of > 1 year has Plk2 as a down-regulated gene in chemotherapy-resistant elapsed since previous exposure to platinum, but there EOC [12]. Plk2 was also independently identified as a are few other clinico-pathological parameters to guide critical determinant of clinical sensitivity of B CLL to the physician in the rational use of chemotherapy at first chemotherapy, failure of Plk2 induction by fludarabine and subsequent relapses, underlining the importance strongly predicting chemotherapy resistance [13]. of identifying and validating robust biomarkers of drug Interestingly, when A2780 cells with high level resistance sensitivity / resistance. to paclitaxel were grown in the absence of maintenance An increasing consensus recognizes the importance exposure to the drug, a paclitaxel sensitive population of epigenetics (heritable non-structural changes in gene re-emerged which re-expressed Plk2 due to loss of expression), as a major mechanism driving acquired methylation in the PLK2 CpG island. These proliferated at resistance to chemotherapy [8]. A popular approach to a higher basal rate than the paclitaxel-resistant cells from identifying determinants of acquired resistance to anti- which they derived, an effect phenol-copied (at least in cancer agents is the use of cell lines made relatively part) by ectopic expression of Plk2 [9] and unpublished resistant to cytotoxic drugs in vitro with subsequent observations). This was to the best of our knowledge the analysis either via the testing of candidate genes or by first demonstration that specific epigenetic changes are expression profiling. We derived a series of novel EOC reversible when the selective pressure that initiated and cell lines with acquired resistance to paclitaxel and then sustained evolution of a drug resistant cell population carboplatin and showed that resistance to paclitaxel, is removed. Our observations may partially answer the often with cross-resistance to carboplatin, occurred with question of why the longer an individual cancer patient loss of the G2 checkpoint and apoptosis [9] and we asked is not exposed to anti-cancer agents, the higher the whether this was associated with changes in expression probability that clinical response will be seen upon re- of the Polo Like Kinases. Whereas expression of Plk1, challenge with the original chemotherapy (a regular Plk3 and Plk4 was unchanged, there was clear and management strategy in platinum sensitive EOC and in reproducible down-regulation of Plk2 due to acquired other cancers treated with platinum such as non-small methylation in the CpG-island at the 5’ end of the gene. cell and small cell lung cancer and mesothelioma). In this Increasing levels of resistance to paclitaxel correlated with model, methylation-dependent transcriptional silencing incrementally decreased expression of Plk2 and increasing of key cell cycle regulators would increase with ongoing CpG island methylation. We propose that exposure to exposure to cytotoxic drugs and then diminish when chemotherapeutic stress induces methylation in the CpG chemotherapy is stopped. Re-expression of genes such as island of specific “ resistance” genes and this seeding PLK2 and re-emergence of a more rapidly proliferating effect leads to increasing methylation as the level of cell population would manifest as clinical relapse but with resistance increases, a phenomenon previously described reacquired chemotherapy sensitivity. in cells exposed to 6-mercaptopurine [10]. A study by Matthew et al. [11] described an in vivo study that A WIDER ROLE FOR CELL CYCLE considered the influence of hypoxia on chemosensitivity REGULATORS IN DRUG RESISTANCE IN in Plk2-deficient tumours. Complete resistance to OVARIAN CANCER camptothecin was shown which pointed to an interplay between Plk2 and tumour micro-environment, whereas We have demonstrated a role for down-regulation in the same experiments normoxia was associated with of Plk2 as a pivotal factor underlying platinum / increased drug sensitivity. In the same study, it was shown taxane resistance in EOC by a series of gene silencing that Plk2 can inhibit mTOR signaling under the influence experiments [9]. These findings prompt interesting of wild-type p53 control. questions concerning a possible more general role for In clinical cases of EOC, DNA methylation of the cell cycle regulators as determinants of chemotherapy CpG island in the PLK2 promoter in tumor tissue was sensitivity/ resistance, consistent with work by other www.impactjournals.com/oncotarget 80 Oncotarget 2012; 3: 78 - 83 investigators [14]. Micro-array analysis of our own series to the Hsp90-targeting compound Geldanamycin [22]. The of novel paclitaxel- and platinum-resistant EOC cell lines same study showed a combination of Geldanamycin and has revealed that several such genes are down-regulated in imatinib to be effective in BCR/Abl expressing cells, but isogenic paclitaxel-resistant cell lines, including Wee1 and only at unrealistic dose levels. An intriguing approach p57Kip2. Down-regulation of p57Kip2 results in unopposed was to then consider the cell cycle inhibitor flavopiridol activity of the cyclin dependent kinases (CDK) and we – which can act as a transcriptional inhibitor (as can the hypothesized that this could confer collateral sensitivity to CDK inhibitor seliciclib) and could help to overcome CDK inhibitors. Testing the CDK2 inhibitor seliciclib in the block in apoptosis seen in highly over-expressing EOC cell lines confirmed that this is indeed the case [15]. BCR/Abl cells. Indeed, the triple combination of drugs These results raise the intriguing possibility that a subset enabled sensitization of the resistant cells to the effects of EOC, in which acquired resistance to chemotherapy of Geldanamycin [22]. Increased activation of AKT and / occurs via transcriptional silencing of cell cycle regulatory or a lack of PTEN is associated with tumours with a high genes such as p57Kip2 are collaterally sensitized to proliferative response and chemotherapy resistance, but pharmacological inhibition of the CDKs. may confer sensitivity to mTOR inhibitors (reviewed in23]. This is further complicated by the fact that a COLLATERAL SENSITIVITY OF DRUG feedback loop in the mTOR pathway leads to suppression of AKT and thus mTOR inhibition could actually lead to RESISTANT CELL LINES – ARE THERE activation of AKT in some cells [24]. The notch3, jagged OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESENSITISATION? and Wnt genes have been shown to be expressed in serous ovarian cancers [25]. It is tempting to speculate that this The term “ collateral sensitivity” was first used in the tumour, which is notoriously chemorefractory, may be field of microbiology to describe the “hypersensitivity” of sensitive to specific targeted agents directed against such otherwise antibiotic resistant E.coli (reviewed in Hall et al. genotypes. 2009). The mechanistic basis underlying this phenomenon The EGFR directed tyrosine kinase inhibitor are varied and complex but nevertheless encompass a wide Gefitinib, whilst showing itself to be an effective therapy range of important chemotherapeutic drugs (reviewed in in the management of NSCLC with activating mutations 16]. The concept that acquired resistance to one class in EGFR, is also associated with the development of of agent may confer “collateral sensitivity” to a second resistance rendering it ineffective. NSCLC cell lines with class of agents is established in the field of oncology and acquired resistance to Gefitinib expressing reduced EGFR has been explored with a number of cytotoxic cancer were shown to possess collateral sensitivity to TNF-alpha chemotherapeutic agents [17], but has not been widely [26]. Even with reduced EGFR levels, Gefitinib resistant exploited in the clinical setting.. Interestingly, it was cells responded to TNF-alpha by autophosphorylation of shown that the collateral sensitivity of nitrogen mustard- EGFR with reduced AKT-phosphorylation. resistant cells to chloroethyl nitrosoureas was attributable Our observations, and those of other investigators, to the loss of guanine-O6-alkyl transferase activity present imply that a potential approach to therapy of solid in the parent line, implying that changes in expression tumours would envisage molecular profiling pre- and of specific genes confer both resistance and collateral post-acquisition of clinical drug resistance. Transcriptional sensitivity [18]. A study by Nakajima et al. [19] which silencing of one or more key cell cycle regulators such as examined two different time exposures of EOC lines to p57Kip2 would support the use of CDK inhibitors. Clearly, paclitaxel demonstrated a relationship between drug such an approach requires additional studies to determine exposure time and extent of resistance induction, with the specific role of cell cycle regulators as determinants collateral sensitivity to cisplatin. Another study by Xu et of resistance to individual chemotherapeutic agents and al. [20] analysed cisplatin-resistant gastric cancer lines the effect of their loss, if any, in conferring collateral generated by use of varying concentrations of inducing sensitivity to pharmacological inhibitors of the CDKs. agent. Higher cisplatin-resistance was shown to correlate with collateral sensitivity to other platinum compounds, CONCLUSIONS doxorubicin, mitomycin C and 5-FU. A variety of mechanisms associated with antioxidant and transporter Since the first description of anticancer drug genes was proposed by the authors [20]. There are also resistance, investigators have identified a multiplicity examples of platinum-resistance being associated with of mechanisms which affect cellular sensitivity both to collateral sensitivity to anti-folate compounds [21]. individual agents and more generally. Mechanistically, collateral sensitivity: resistance has Alongside efforts to describe the mechanistic basis been more rigourously tested with new targeted anti-cancer of reduced response to chemotherapy, there is a continuing agents. Indeed, the literature cites a number of examples requirement to identify robust biomarkers which predict where new targeted therapy may be used advantageously patients at risk of developing chemotherapy resistant in combination “cocktails”. Raf-1 transformed cells were disease and suggest optimal alternative therapy for them. relatively resistant to doxorubicin but collaterally sensitive www.impactjournals.com/oncotarget 81 Oncotarget 2012; 3: 78 - 83 We have shown that the cell cycle regulators PLK2 and signaling, tumour growth and chemosensitivity under p57Kip2 are important determinants and candidate novel hypoxic conditions. Cell Cycle 2009; 8: 4168-75. biomarkers of chemotherapy resistance in ovarian (and 12. Ju W, Yoo BC, Kim IJ, Kim JW, Kim SC and Lee HP. potentially other) cancers. Our results raise interesting Identification of genes with differential expression in considerations into collateral drug sensitivity in chemoresistant epithelial ovarian cancer using high-density chemotherapy resistance both in vitro and in the oncology oligonucleotide microarrays. Oncol Rep 2009; 18: 47–56. clinic. 13. 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