o i t i c a a s t e r s i n Visual /mrrgery in a Revolutionary Context by BERIT SAHLSTROM ,"J U ppsala 1990 Almqvist & Wiksell International Stockholm, Sweden G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN I I I A I Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis • I, F qr, I Figura· Nova Series 24 ·.; . 2 :'..!-· Editor: Allan Ellenius Doctoral dissertation at Uppsala University, 1990 Abstract Sahlstrom, B., 1990. Political Posters in Ethiopia and Mozambique. Visual Imagery in a Revolutionary Context. Acta Universitatis UpsaJiensis, Nova Series 24. Figura pp. 180 Uppsa la. ISBN 91-554-2642-5. This thesis documents and analyses political posters from Ethiopia and Mozambique, two African countries which have little cultural and historical tradition in common. The dissertation comprises eight chapters. The introduction is followed by the state of research. In the third chapter, theory, method and choice of source material are discussed. Drawings, photographic images, typographical posters, symbols and emblematic compositions are treated in chapters four to seven. The concluding chapter concerns the nature and role of political posters. Previous research has considered the political poster as a mass-produced, artistic medium with propagandistic messages, which reached its zenith before the spread of radio and televi sion. However, this view does not take into account the poster art of the Third World, where the situations differ from one country to another. A comparative study of Ethiopian and Mozambi can posters shows that an old, rich pictorial tradition, as in Ethiopia, is less likely to incorporate western revolutionary, socialist iconographical elements and traditions. In Mozambique, on the other hand, colonial experience, urban culture, political awareness and an openness to revolu tionary, socialist change, have given western propaganda art sufficient room in which to develop. Political posters have also to be studied as a transitional medium, coming before the revolu tionaries have consolidated their position and built up a permanent, monumental art. Interest ingly enough, monumental art and mural paintings of a permanent nature in Mozambique have unusually close ties to Mozambican poster art. It is also apparent that North Korean assistance in agit-prop activities has influenced Ethiopian and Mozambican poster a.rt as well as some of the early political monuments. In contemporary societies, political posters have become in themselves symbols of revolution ary change. This is an important reason for the continuous production of posters, even in societies where the general public may not fully comprehend the symbolic language, or the political message, or two-dimensional images. Key words: political posters, political art, political propaganda, poster history, poster art, propaganda art, revolutionary art, socialist art, revolutionary posters, Ethiopian posters, Mo zambican posters, African art, Ethiopian art, Mozambican art, visual comprehension, political symbolism, emblematic compositions. Berit Sahlstr6m, Department of Art History, Domkyrkogatan 7, S-75220 Uppsala, Sweden. ISBN 91-554-2642-5 ISSN 0071-481 X © 1990 Berit Sahlstrom Cover: Third Congress of All-Ethiopia Peasants' Association. July 1982, 79 X 50 cm, multicolour offset print, Addis Ababa, 1982 (EPSFC Headquarters, Addis Ababa, 1984). I Mayffhe Worker's Day. 38X28 cm, three-colour offset print, Jose Freire, DNPP, Maputo, Litografia Academica, 1.970s (AHM 244, Cat 2). layout: Jerk-Olof Werkmaster Printed in Sweden by Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri, Uppsala 1990 G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Contents CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Prologue 1 Clarifications 2 Politics, culture and mass culture in Mozambique: A short outline 5 Modern urban development 6 Resistance and nationalism 8 National and cultural identity 9 The press 10 Politics, culture and mass culture in Ethiopia: A short outline 10 The Emperor's Ethiopia Ethiopian national identity The Dergue 11 12 comes to power 13 Ethiopian cultural context and the role of visual images 13 Foreign press in Mozambique and Ethiopia 14 CHAPTER II. STATE OF RESEARCH 17 On political posters l 7 The poster as an artistic.medium 22 Posters as illustrated history 24 A technical perspective 26 On caricatures as printed imagery's highest form 26 World War I 26 The October Revolution 28 The inter-war period 32 The Spanish Civil War 32 Posters in Nazi Germany 33 Polish poster art 34 Third World posters 36 Cuban posters 36 Chinese posters 38 African posters 38 Paris 1968 40 Posters seen as a fo r111 of mass-produced images 40 The language of images 41 CHAPTER III. THEORY, SOURCES, AND METHODS 43 'New' pictures in 'new' countries. Theoretical problems and practical an- swers 43 The problem of African socialism and socialist iconography 44 Aim and scope 45 Choice of research area and source material 46 V G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN The winner's propaganda 49 Mozambique 49 Ethiopia 50 Methods of analysis and presentation of results 51 CHAPTER IV. DRAWINGS AND OTHER MONOCHROME ILLUSTRA- TIONS 54 Mozambique 54 Early FRELIMO drawings 54 Agostinho Mi/ha/re 60 Xiconhoca 61 Changes and developments in style 63 Ethiopia 66 An image of revolution and warrior culture 61 A blown-up action cartoon sequence 69 Abonesh Kabede's REWA drawings 10 Drawings and monochrome illustrations: The first step. Developments in printing technique, content and style 72 CHAPTER V. PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES IN POSTERS 73 Mozambique c. 1969-c. 1980 73 Later developments 80 Photographic motifs in Ethiopian posters 85 CHAPTER VI. TYPOGRAPHICAL POSTERS 92 Mozambique 92 Ethiopia 94 Are typographical posters made because of lack of time? 96 CHAPTER VII. SYMBOLS AND EMBLEMATIC COMPOSITIONS IN POSTERS 99 Mozambique 99 Symbols and emblems in the Freire School 99 Posters for independence day l 03 Idealized realism-emblematic compositions l 06 Samora Machel depicted as an individual, a symbol and in an emblematic composition 107 Ethiopia l 08 Symbol compositions from the Addis Ababa School of Fine Arts l 08 Sym bol compositions from the Party Headquarters 112 Some posters made for Ethiopian Peace, Solidarity and Friendship Committee, EPSFC 112 Symbols in landscapes and other artistic and traditional scenes 114 Dawit Menghistu 116 Late posters from the Ministry of Informa tion and National Guidance 117 Old symbols in new environments additional notes on symbols and their use and changes 119 VI G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN VIII. THE NATURE AND THE ROLE OF POLITICAL POST- CHAPTER ERS. CONCLUDING REMARKS 134 Political posters as symbols 134 Political posters as an art form 134 Political posters related to other propaganda pictures 136 Political posters' relationship to monumental art 138 Mozambique 138 Ethiopia 139 North Korean influence 141 Posters be yond revolution 143 NOTES 145 REFERENCES 158 Sources 158 Bibliography 159 ILLUSTRATIONS 166 ABBREVIATIONS 172 INDEX 174 VII G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Google Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Preface This dissertation has been supervised by Allan Ellenius and Lena Johannes son. Their continuous support and critical advice have been of invaluable importance in the development and completion of this study. I am very grateful indeed to them both. To Hedvig Brander-Jonsson, Gunilla Frick, Birgitta Hogvall, and Gun nel Westring-Bastin, I express profound thanks and appreciation for their friendship, support and the stimulating milieu that they have created in the Department of Art History at Uppsala University. In addition, Olle Bjorklund, ·Hans Griph, Raija Hynninen, Olle Lindman, Chrisler R. Berg lund, Jan-Erik Nyberg, Eila Luukas, and Marianne af Uhr have offered me valuable assistance in my daily work. I wish to express my gratitude and admiration for the help given by Viveca Halldin-Norberg and Elisabeth Ragnarsson and their colleagues at Uppsala University Library, and to Birgitta Fahlander and Christina Ry lander at the library of the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, as well as to the personnel of the Institute. In Mozambique, during my work in 1984 (one month) and 1985-86 (four months), I was well received by the staff of Arquivo Historico de M0t;ambi que. Maria Ines da Costa Nougeira and her colleagues Ant6nio Joao Denis Sopa and Teresa Oliveira became my friends, and were always willing to help. I thank them warmly. To the personnel at the Ministries of Informa tion and Culture, I acknowledge deep gratitude for their efforts to provide me with source material. The Swedish Embassy and SIDA assisted me also, as did volunteers of the Swedish Africa Groups. In Ethiopia (one month in 1984, five weeks in 1986-87 and four months in 1988) I was the guest of the Ethiopian Peace, Solidarity and Friendship Committee. Yohannes Gebreselassie and his colleagues were always prompt to answer my questions-from converting the Ethiopian/Julian calendar into the Gregorian, to providing me with car transportation and accompanying me on visits to artists and various institutions. Without the support and the friendship of the Committee workers it would have taken far more time to carry out the research in Ethiopia. The SIDA Office personnel in Addis Ababa were also helpful in practical matters. In the course of writing this dissertation, I have enjoyed expert help, assistance and friendly support from so many persons. Among those in volved during my work on Mozambican sources I wish to mention Albie Sachs, Malangatana Ngwenya, Eugenio D. Lemos, Malin Karre, Ann Bru zelius, Anna Grahm, Eva Ryan-Berg, Christer Johansson (during my stay in Zimbabwe), Gunvor and Rodrigo Goncalvez and my sister Ulla Sahlstrom. Among those who were of considerable help in Ethiopia I want to thank especially Abdu Rahman Sheriff, Seyom Wolde, Girma Kidane, Jill and IX G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Geoffrey Last, Desta Hagos, Yeshi Mulugeta, Hailemariam Worku, Terhas Berhane, and Abezash Wolde Michael. So many have been of great help during my work in Sweden-friends and colleagues, administrators with and understanding for research, and ex perts in a variety of fields-I thank all, especially Solfrid Soderlind, Linda Lindenau, Bo Karre, Eva-Lena Bengtsson, Margareta Gynning, Ingrid An dersson, Barbro Werkmaster, Rolf Kjellstrom, Carl-Eric Bergold, Annct Nilsen, Borje Magnusson, Lars Bergqvist, Alf Hedlund, Jerk-Olof Werkn:.1- ster, Rudolf Zeitler, Karin Adahl, Inger Jernberg, Adam Taube, Cajsa Bratt, Ricardo Timane, Gabriella Oxenstiema, Monica Blom, Olle Johans son, Diana Strannard, Per-Ulf Nilsson, Claartje Aarts, Jacob Jonsson, and my father, Robert Sahlstrom. I express my deep gratitute for the financial support given to this project by the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation (Sarec), the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), the Swedish Institute, Anna -Maria Lundin's Travelling Scholarship, Axelsson-Jonsson's Foundation, and the Post-graduate Research Fund, Uppsala University. I have special thanks for Kerstin Hughes and Peter Hughes, who have transformed my Swedish American English into the text below. It has been carried out within stipulated time, sometimes at short notice. Kerstin Hughes, Peter Hughes, and Gunnel Westring-Bastin were also kind enough to assist me with the index. While acknowledging their invaluable assist ance, I remain responsible for eventual errors. The illustrations used in the thesis are of uneven technical quality due to the conditions under which they were documented. Finally I am much obliged to my husband, friend, and colleague Tekeste Negash, who has given me continuous support and assistance, and to our daughters Ambesit, Hanna and Miriam for their great patience. Uppsala, September 1990 Berit Sahlstrom X G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN CHAPTER I Introduction .. r: I Prologue During the 1960s and 1970s, liberation movements in Third World coun tries struggled against colonialism and imperialism. It was a conflict fought with communication media as much as with weapons. Within the coun tries, a continuous flow of info r111ation and propaganda was needed in order to justify and win support for the call for liberation and national unity, while the outside world had to be constantly reminded of the hard ships and unjust treatment suffered by the people in these countries. One of the media employed to achieve these ends was the political poster, and it is the political poster in two African countries, Ethiopia and Mozambique, which is the subject of the present thesis. In most Western countries, students, church members and trade union ists supported Third World liberation movements with information cam paigns, by collecting money and later through the recruitment of volunteers for work in Africa. Organizations supporting liberation movements became factors of some importance in the international mass media campaigns to counter the colonialists' news bulletins and distorted infor1nation dissemi nated by Western news agencies. They received and produced newsletters, travel reports, posters, pamphlets, photographs and films. The members became increasingly aware of the role played by the mass media in this struggle. My own commitment to the cause began in 1975 when I joined the Africa Groups of Sweden. 1 As a student of the social sciences, fine arts and art history, I was successively drawn to propaganda material. I was interested in political posters for their actual or supposed role in political reality, for their power to persuade, their fo r111al simplicity and not seldom because of their aesthetic qualities. Some were sent from Africa, some were made by Africans in exile in Europe, others by European solidarity workers. They were used as propaganda in the streets, in demonstrations and on walls. They decorated solidarity groups' and political parties' meeting places and offices and their members' private homes. During the 1970s, the Department of Art History at Uppsala University was a centre for the study of mass-produced pictorial images. Hedvig Brander-Jonsson, Allan Ellenius, Thomas HArd af Segerstad, Lena Jo hannesson, Barbro Werkmaster and others were involved in different as pects of this field: religious images, mass-produced scientific illustrations, photographic reproductions from the news media, comic strips, illustra tions in periodicals and pamphlets of popular movements, and children's 2 picture books. Moreover, Allan Ellenius' earlier study of the public arts and ideologies dealt with another important issue related to the study of posters: the relationship between the fine arts and politics. 3 I G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN An essay on Angolan posters and the development of their symbolic imagery and language was my first attempt to contribute to the study of modem political poster art. 4 When the Angolan posters were considered in chronological order, one could see how the symbolic language developed and how new types of events gave rise to new types of posters. Artists influenced by a new aestheticism produced colourful and decorative pic tures, while the symbols within the propaganda posters adopted the propa gandist form of expression found in the traditional political poster. As a result of the ideological changes around 1968 and thereafter, politi cal and intellectual debates shifted towards a radical, leftist orientation in Europe. Art historians in U ppsala contributed to a modernized view of art and art history, drawing in part on the traditions of one of the university's former professors, Gregor Paulsson. Attention was focused on communica tive aspects, taking all social classes into consideration. The development towards greater respect for mass-produced pictures was influenced by such theoreticians and art historians as William Ivins, Estelle Jussim, Herbert Read, Walter Benjamin, Arnold Hauser, Francis D. Klingender, Richard Hiepe and Susan Sontag. Periodicals such as the German Tendenzen and Kunst und Unterricht gave support to art historians with new outlooks while, for example, Graphis retained its character as a medium where aestheticism and commercialism went hand in hand. The Uppsala approach to art history with its emphasis on the socio-cul tural perspective in the study of mass-produced images paved the way for the development of Third World poster studies. In addition to this, a stay at Michigan State University during the academic year of 1979-80 introduced me to pertinent American literature and to views expressed on the college campus, where commercial and political poster imagery were granted just about equal and parallel status, to be almost interchangeable in theoretical and methodological discussions. Clarifications Concepts with inbuilt ambiguity are common within the field of propagan da art. The following are therefore defined or discussed in order to clarify the way in which they are understood and used below. Revolution: Depending on political preferences, our assumptions of what revolution is all about have positive or negative connotations. However, they cannot provide a good basis for classification when dealing with 5 political events and definitions of ideologies in this study. If not otherwise stated in the text, revolution is used in the sense of abrupt and/or violent societal change. The broad definition bypasses any discussion on the sincer ity or justification of the socialist revolutions in Ethiopia and Mozam bique. The question is certainly important in a political study, but may be omitted in a project which mainly deals with propaganda as visual images of the given periods. On the other hand, I can see-and to some extent accept-that the results of the study can be used to defend or criticize the political honesty of the revolutionaries. 2 G oogle Original from Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN