EastErn EuropEan CulturE, politiCs and soCiEtiEs edited by Irena grudzinska-gross and andrzej tymowski Vol. 1 Peter Lang Frankfurt am Main · Berlin · Bern · Bruxelles · new York · Oxford · Warszawa · Wien Lidia Jurek Polish Risorgimento Visions of the Modern Polish nation and their Italian Foundations Peter Lang Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Cover Design: © Olaf Gloeckler, Atelier Platen, Friedberg This book is based on the EUI PhD thesis written in the History and Civilization Department and defended in 2010. It has been published with a financial subsidy from the European University Institute, Florence; ouvrage publié avec le concours de l’Institut Universitaire Européen. ISSN 2192-497X ISBN 978-3-631-62401-2 © Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Frankfurt am Main 2012 All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. www.peterlang.de Contents   Introduction ....................................................................................................... 11 Themes and perspectives ................................................................................. 16 Historiographical account and contribution to current research ...................... 23 Methodology .................................................................................................... 29 The actors of the study – the intelligentsia ...................................................... 36 Time frame ....................................................................................................... 42 PART I The democrats – from alleanza dei popoli to Polonia fara da se ................... 47 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 49 The Polish and Italian democratic nationalists ................................................ 51 First redefinitions of the nationhood ................................................................ 53 Mutually inspired ideology of national mission .............................................. 57 1 Path to independence: alleanza dei popoli 1848-60 ........................................ 63 1.1 ‘Self in the other’- Italian and Polish sibling nations before 1848 ............ 63 1.1.1 Together: Carboneria and Young Poland ....................................... 70 1.1.2 Alone: republican partisan paradigm (Kościuszko and Mazzini) ... 73 1.2 The republican legion of Adam Mickiewicz in Italy, 1848-49 ................. 76 1.3 In opposition to the monarchical facet of the Risorgimento 1848-51 ......... 90 1.3.1 Against the legions in Italy – toward national egoism? .................. 95 1.3.2 Critique of Italia fara da se 1851-60 ............................................ 100 2 The lingering demise of Romantic ideology 1860-71 ................................... 105 2.1 Growing intransigence of the democrats ................................................. 111 2.2 Questioning the Italian model ................................................................. 118 2.3 Last epigones and lasting emotions ......................................................... 124 6 Contents 3 Multi-cultural nation – the civil religion vs. Catholicism .............................. 135 3.1 The democrats’ attitude to religion .......................................................... 141 3.2 Support for the Italians in their conflict with the Pope ............................ 145 Conclusions: The peculiar legacy of the democrats: from solidarity of nations to national egoism ............................................................................ 159 PART II Hôtel Lambert – ‘A vote for Italy is a vote for Poland’ ............................... 163 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 165 Hôtel Lambert – conditions of exile .............................................................. 169 Modus operandi – diplomacy, press, agents, networks ................................. 173 4 Risorgimento and the dawn of the ‘principle of nationality’ ......................... 179 4.1 The genesis of the Roman and Piedmontese options .............................. 180 4.2 The uses of the growing significance of Italy as the centre of European attention .............................................................................. 184 5 The Risorgimento and the Polish communication with ‘Europe’ .................. 193 5.1 Violence: Polish legions in Italy as an instrument of appeal to Europe .. 193 5.1.1 Legions in Piedmont and Rome .................................................... 196 5.1.2 Poles as mediators of the alliance between Italy, Slavs and Turkey .................................................................................... 201 5.1.3 Violence as a traditional right of free people to defence .............. 207 5.2 National discourse – Italian ‘principle of nationality’ applied to the Polish case ..................................................................................... 210 5.2.1 For the same rights of the Italian and Polish nations .................... 213 5.2.2 To make Italians out of Poles ....................................................... 218 5.2.3 Risorgimental metaphors in the Polish literary-linguistic sphere ...... 228 6 Morals vs. pragmatics: a growing rift between the Italians and Poles 1861-71 .......................................................................................... 233 6.1 Polish speranze versus the reality, 1860-61 ........................................... 233 6.2 The Polish-Italian relations towards new challenges, 1863-66 .............. 239 6.3 Divisive effect of the Roman Question, 1860-71 .................................... 241 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 262 Contents 7 PART III The conservatives: Risorgimental background of ‘Pole Catholic’ .............. 265 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 267 The quandary over the historiographical image of the revolutionary Pole Catholic .................................................................................................. 269 The Church in Italy and Poland: a carrier of national identity? ..................... 275 7 The Krakow conservatives against the revolutionary Risorgimento ............. 283 7.1 Italian lawbreakers .................................................................................. 283 7.1.1 Violation of European customs by the Italians, 1848-60 .............. 285 7.1.2 Misdeeds of the final stage of the Risorgimento, 1860-71 ........... 294 7.1.3 Pius IX: the foundation of peace and justice ................................ 299 7.2 Polish national survival through moderation, caution and tradition ....... 304 7.2.1 Joining loyalism with patriotism – the alternative way of the Krakow group after 1866 .................................................... 305 7.2.2 'The Roman Question' and the future of the Polish nation ........... 311 8 The ultramontanes – Pole Catholic versus Italian dissenter .......................... 319 8.1 The ongoing degeneration of Italian morals ............................................ 319 8.1.1 Early hopes set by the Italian moderates, 1848 ............................ 319 8.1.2 The rise of a dangerous pagan state in the 1860s ......................... 327 8.1.3 The Italy of 1871: a picture of a post-revolutionary despair ........ 336 8.2 The moral condition of the nation above its political existence .............. 341 8.2.1 The ultramontanes – disappointed revolutionaries seeking consolation? .................................................................................. 341 8.2.2 ‘Organic work’ against Italianate struggle ................................... 352 8.2.3 ‘Piedmont and Russia, the Pope and Poland, these are the synonyms’ ............................................................................... 358 Conclusions: Catholicism as a means of national resistance ............................ 370 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 373 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 391 Acknowledgments It is a great pleasure to thank my supervisor, Professor Arfon Rees, who invited me to write this thesis, had confidence in me, and has offered me help and guid- ance throughout. His valuable suggestions and critique were always expressed kindly and supportively, and thus were always encouraging rather than disheart- ening. Moreover, I would like to express my gratitude to the professors who, despite their demanding timetables, always made themselves available to discuss my thesis: those I met at the European University Institute – Prof. Heinz G. Haupt for judiciously directing me to ‘cultural transfers’, Prof. Philipp Ther for his assistance as a liaison advisor, Bernhard Struck for his enthusiasm at the early stage of my work and Prof. Ray Taras for his advice during the later stages of writing. I am very grateful to professors with the Italian sphere of expertise: especially to Prof. Marta Petrusewicz, Bogdan Szlachta and Krzysztof Żaboklicki who appeared to be very responsive to the inquiries of the young researcher. Finally, I would like to express my deep appreciation to Alberto M. Banti and Brian Porter-Szűcs for their inspiring ideas on the relationship between nationalism and Catholicism. The thesis would not have been possible without the generous funding for research and travel from the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the European University Institute in Florence which has also financially supported this publication. The helpfulness of the staff at the EUI far exceeded the bounds of duty and I would like to thank in particular all the librarians for their unending support in every possible way. It has been the greatest pleasure to have the opportunity to spend these years in the intellectual atmosphere at San Domenico, set amidst the artistic splendor of Florence, the remarkable flavour of Tuscany and the beauty of the diverse landscape of Italy. On a personal note, my thanks to all those who have offered friendship, intellectual stimulation and logistical support during these incredible years in Florence, especially to my partner, and excellent colleague, Philipp who has enriched my thesis in a number of ways and comfortingly accompanied me during the long hours of writing, but also to Zuzana Loubet del Bayle, Michał and Asia Gołąbek, Magda and Rafał Silscy, Priti and Ujjwal Kumar, Ula Wójtowicz, Magda Jarosz, Tomasz Woźniak and Pietro de Sarlo. My special thanks go to Bruno Kamiński, a good spirit of my life, without whom this whole project would have been a far more mundane task. Because of him, it has proved a great adventure. It would be impossible to account for all the times he has been extremely helpful. 10 Acknowledgments Finally, thanks go to my family, my ever supportive grandmother, my sister Ewelina and my parents, who surely never imagined just how far further education could go, but have provided me with the best environment for intellectual development and it is to them, Rodzicom, that I dedicate my work.