Forensics, Law Enforcement, and Homeland Security E N Police and S M I N Military Dogs G E R Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility P JOHN J. ENSMINGER o l A solid, hands-on, quick reference source for K9 Officers to use as guidance in their normal i day-to-day cases. Also, an excellent reference tool for state and district attorneys to use when c researching case law. Truly exceptional! e — Detective Jan Scofield, Master Trainer, North American Police Work Dog Association; National Instructor, National Narcotic Detector Dog Association a Police procedures, forensic science, and the law have all had to take into account the tasks n that police dogs perform and the evidence that their work produces. As such, it is essential that those in the criminal justice system understand this type of evidence and its value. Police d and Military Dogs: Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility examines the use of police and military dogs for a wide variety of functions and explores canine biology and behavior as it applies to police work. M The book begins with an overview of the changes that have occurred in the field in the past four i decades as discoveries have been made about canine capabilities. The author examines how l a canine handler’s work with a skilled police dog can affect the subsequent investigation and i prosecution of the crime. He discusses optimal procedures for finding and processing evidence, t and describes the boundaries of admissibility of evidence produced by police dogs. The book a examines the many diverse detection functions police dogs are being trained to perform, r ranging from cadaver detection to the discovery of explosives. It also describes the use of dogs y to apprehend criminals and in search and rescue operations. Written for a wide audience including canine handlers, forensic scientists, attorneys, and the D judiciary, this volume covers topics pertinent to all aspects of the police dog in contemporary law enforcement. o g K13331 s ISBN: 978-1-4398-7239-0 90000 www.crcpress.com 9 781439 872390 www.crcpress.com K13331 cvr mech.indd 1 8/24/11 1:23 PM A solid, hands-on, quick reference source for K9 officers to use as guidance in their normal day-to-day cases. Also, an excellent reference tool for state and district attorneys to use when researching case law. Truly exceptional! Detective Jan Scofield, Master Trainer, North American Police Work Dog Association; National Instructor, National Narcotic Detector Dog Association A must for all police and military law enforcement personnel and prosecutors. The book illus- trates the fundamentals of working dogs on search for a scent that may be looking for a person or drugs. The book is very detailed in explaining the laws of search and seizure and how and what motivates the dog to work. I strongly recommend this book to all law enforcement officers, military police, and all county and state prosecutors. If you want to know how and why a dog works, here is the book. If you are a law enforcement officer you have to read this! Detective Mike Drake, Kentucky State Trooper (Ret.), Pennyrile (Kentucky Regional) Narcotics Task Force (Former) (Renowned for Having Dismantled More Than 500 Meth Labs) The most comprehensive summary of law enforcement K9 legal and scientific information I have ever seen. Every handler, prosecutor, and judge should read it. Providing K9 support in several homicides referenced in the book, it certainly brings to light many aspects of K9 issues of which everyone should be aware. Even with all the other support materials available for law enforcement K9, having faced one of the best K9 defense experts and coming out victorious as we did, our preparation would have been much easier for me and the prosecutor with a reference tool like Police and Military Dogs. Corporal Jim DeCamp, Clermont County, Ohio, Sheriff’s Department, K-9 Unit Supervisor Police and Military Dogs Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility Police and Military Dogs Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility JOHN J. ENSMINGER Any legal information in the book should not be construed as advice or writ; for legal advice and the such, please consult an attorney, and so forth. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20110817 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7240-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material repro- duced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................xv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................xvii Author .............................................................................................................................................xix Contributors ....................................................................................................................................xxi Introduction ..................................................................................................................................xxiii Section i Police and Military Dogs in the twenty-First century Chapter 1 Development of Police and Military Dog Functions....................................................3 Categories of Canine Functions ...................................................................................4 The Right Dog for the Job ............................................................................................6 Training Philosophies ...................................................................................................7 Canine Behavior and the Alert .....................................................................................7 The Sniff ..................................................................................................................8 Lineups in Police Dog Work ...................................................................................9 Dog and Handler as a Team .........................................................................................9 Canine Evidence .........................................................................................................10 Not All Canine Evidence Becomes Trial Evidence ..............................................11 Lack of Judicial Uniformity .......................................................................................11 Economics of Canine Work .......................................................................................12 Dangers of Police Work ..............................................................................................12 Military Applications .................................................................................................12 The Future ..................................................................................................................13 Notes ...........................................................................................................................14 Chapter 2 Canine Biology and Behavior ....................................................................................19 Genetics ......................................................................................................................19 Canine DNA as Evidence ......................................................................................19 Canine Olfaction ........................................................................................................20 Ability of Dogs to Remember and Distinguish Odors ..........................................20 Interference with Scent Perception ........................................................................21 Canine–Human Communication ...............................................................................21 Sleep Patterns .............................................................................................................22 Notes ...........................................................................................................................22 Section ii tracking, trailing, and Scent identification Chapter 3 History and Judicial Acceptance of Tracking and Trailing Evidence .......................27 States Accepting Tracking Evidence ..........................................................................27 v vi Contents States Rejecting Tracking Evidence ...........................................................................27 Foundational Requirements for Tracking Evidence ...................................................28 Qualifications of the Handler .....................................................................................28 Is the Handler an Expert? ......................................................................................29 Professional Guidelines for Trainer Qualification .................................................29 Breeds Appropriate for Tracking ...............................................................................30 Pedigree .................................................................................................................30 Word of Handler on Dog’s Origins ........................................................................30 Kennel Club Registration ......................................................................................31 Pedigree Sometimes of Little Importance .............................................................31 The Bloodhound Myth ..........................................................................................32 A Viable Requirement? .........................................................................................32 Training ......................................................................................................................32 Professional Guidelines for Tracking and Trailing Dog Training .........................33 Reliability ...................................................................................................................34 Success Rates .........................................................................................................35 Unusually Effective Dogs ......................................................................................36 Jury Determination of Reliability..........................................................................37 Period of Reliability ...................................................................................................37 Weather Conditions ...............................................................................................38 Records and Certification ...........................................................................................38 Accuracy Requirements in Professional Guidelines .............................................38 Corroboration .............................................................................................................39 Examples of Corroboration ...................................................................................39 Failure to Corroborate ...........................................................................................40 Jury Instructions .........................................................................................................40 Appellate Review .......................................................................................................41 Notes ...........................................................................................................................41 Chapter 4 Scientific Analysis of Tracking, Trailing, and Scent Identification ...........................49 John J. Ensminger and Tadeusz Jezierski Human Odor ...............................................................................................................49 Primary and Secondary Odors ..............................................................................50 Effects of Tertiary Odors .......................................................................................50 Odors of the Trail .......................................................................................................50 Collecting Scent and Scent Enhancement ..................................................................51 Items Used to Scent Dogs ......................................................................................52 Scent Pads ..............................................................................................................52 Storage of Scent Samples ......................................................................................52 Scent Transfer Units ..............................................................................................52 How Long Does Scent Last? ......................................................................................54 Contamination ............................................................................................................56 Transfer of Scent through Clothes ..............................................................................56 Ability of Dogs to Distinguish and Remember Odors ...............................................57 Length of the Sniff ................................................................................................57 Scent from Different Parts of the Body .................................................................57 Distinguishing Genders .........................................................................................59 Research on Tracking and Trailing ............................................................................59 Direction of the Trail .............................................................................................60 Length of the Trail .................................................................................................62 Contents vii Judicial Perspectives on Scientific Aspects of Tracking ............................................62 Admission of Scientific Evidence ..........................................................................62 Evidence from Scent Transfer Units ......................................................................63 Notes ...........................................................................................................................63 Chapter 5 Tracking and Trailing in Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions .........................69 Dogs at the Crime Scene ............................................................................................69 Scenting to Footprints ...........................................................................................69 Scenting to Locations ............................................................................................69 Trailing to Where the Perpetrator Was before the Crime .....................................71 Dogs Put on the Trail Too Far from the Crime Scene ...........................................71 Dogs Scented to Objects ........................................................................................71 Dogs Tracking Not to Find the Perpetrator But to Find Other Evidence ..............72 Tracking from Secondary Locations ..........................................................................72 Tracking Where the Suspect Lives ........................................................................72 Scenting to Items or Locations with Odors of Multiple Individuals ..........................73 Missing Member ....................................................................................................73 Circumstances of the Trail .........................................................................................73 Dogs Tracking to Multiple Items or Suspects .......................................................75 Retracing the Track ...............................................................................................76 Dog’s Attention Focused on Points along a Trail ..................................................76 Taking the Dog Off the Trail and Forcing the Trail ..............................................76 Following Animal Trails .......................................................................................77 Scenting First to Suspect ............................................................................................77 Contamination of the Trail .........................................................................................77 Contamination Is Different for Tracking and Trailing Dogs ................................79 Purposeful Contamination by the Perpetrator.......................................................79 Contamination Negating Identification .................................................................79 Identifications .............................................................................................................80 Alert as Identification ............................................................................................81 Lack of Alert .........................................................................................................82 Exonerating Identifications ....................................................................................82 Is Trailing More Successful Than Identification? .................................................82 Station Identifications ............................................................................................83 Notes ...........................................................................................................................84 Chapter 6 Judicial Admissibility of Scent Lineup Evidence ......................................................89 Breeds for Scent Lineup Work ...................................................................................90 Training ......................................................................................................................90 Training in Holland ...............................................................................................90 Handler’s Qualifications .............................................................................................90 Accuracy Rates ...........................................................................................................94 Corroboration .............................................................................................................94 Jury Instructions .........................................................................................................94 Judicial Perspectives on Scientific Reliability of Scent Identifications ......................95 Foreign Judicial Perspectives on Scent Identification ................................................96 Notes ...........................................................................................................................97 viii Contents Chapter 7 Scent Lineups in Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions ....................................101 John J. Ensminger and Tadeusz Jezierski Beginning of Formal Identification Procedures .......................................................101 Scent Lineups of People ...........................................................................................102 Cueing ......................................................................................................................104 Scent Matches...........................................................................................................104 Scent-Matching Materials ...................................................................................105 Selecting Foils .....................................................................................................106 Number of Stations in a Lineup ...........................................................................106 Scent Attractiveness ............................................................................................106 Scientifically Conducted Scent Lineups ...................................................................107 Success Rates of Scent Lineup Procedures .........................................................108 Designing Protocols to Optimize Accuracy Rates ..............................................108 Comparison with Visual Lineups ........................................................................109 FBI Use of Dutch Procedures ..................................................................................109 Guidelines of Professional Organizations ................................................................110 Notes .........................................................................................................................110 Section iii Detection Functions Chapter 8 Judicial Admissibility of Canine Detection Evidence .............................................117 Breed Preferences .....................................................................................................117 Training ....................................................................................................................118 Lack of Training Resulting in Exclusion .............................................................119 Training Considered with Other Factors .............................................................119 Training Aids .......................................................................................................120 Handler’s Training ...............................................................................................120 Certification ..............................................................................................................121 Is Certification Sufficient When Security Reasons Preclude Discovery of Field Records? .....................................................................................................122 Reliability .................................................................................................................122 Accuracy Rates ....................................................................................................123 Discovery of Reliability .......................................................................................126 Defendant’s Right to an Expert on Reliability ....................................................126 The Handler as an Expert .........................................................................................128 Alerting ....................................................................................................................128 Strong Alerts........................................................................................................128 Alert Effectively Becoming a Search ..................................................................129 Dog Taught Two Separate Alerts.........................................................................129 Specificity of Alert ..............................................................................................130 Showing Interest without a Clear Alert ...............................................................130 Questioning Whether a Dog Actually Alerted ....................................................132 Rewarding for Alert .............................................................................................133 Alert Recognized by Someone Other Than the Handler ....................................133 Alerts to Residual Odor .......................................................................................133 Alerts to Items Not Trained to Recognize ...........................................................134 Falsely Stating That Dog Had Alerted ................................................................135 Cueing ..................................................................................................................135 Contents ix Human Sense of Smell Can Support Probable Cause ..............................................136 Types of Narcotics Sniffs .........................................................................................136 Notes .........................................................................................................................139 Chapter 9 Scientific Issues in Detection Functions ...................................................................147 Recognition of Illegal Substances and Secondary Chemicals .................................147 Cocaine ................................................................................................................147 Number of Target Odors That Dogs Can Retain .................................................148 Detection of Cocaine on Currency ......................................................................148 Methamphetamine ...............................................................................................150 Ecstasy .................................................................................................................150 Dogs Compared to Other Technologies ...................................................................150 Scientific Standards and Detection Evidence ...........................................................151 Notes .........................................................................................................................151 Chapter 10 Automobile Sniffs ....................................................................................................153 Illinois v. Caballes ...................................................................................................153 Alerts during the Initial Reason for the Stop ...........................................................154 Extending the Stop ..............................................................................................155 Diligence and Consent .........................................................................................155 Request to Open Vents Prior to Sniff ..................................................................156 Jumping into a Vehicle ........................................................................................156 Alert Outside a Car Providing Probable Cause for a Search Inside .........................158 Alert Justifies Two Searches ................................................................................158 Use of More Than One Dog ................................................................................159 Body Sniffs of Passengers ...................................................................................159 Drugs No Longer Present ....................................................................................159 Alerts after Initial Reason for Stop Is Completed ....................................................159 Dog Alerts But Not during Sniff .........................................................................160 Alerts at Secondary Locations .................................................................................161 Officers Move a Vehicle to Aid in Sniff ..............................................................161 Arrest before Moving a Vehicle to a Secondary Location ..................................161 Sniffs at Checkpoints, Roadblocks, and Prison Entrances ......................................162 Temporary Checkpoints ......................................................................................162 Border Checkpoints .............................................................................................162 Exiting Early to Avoid Checkpoints ....................................................................163 Searches at Weigh Stations ..................................................................................163 Prison Entrances and Military Facilities .............................................................163 Sniffs of Parked Vehicles .........................................................................................163 Inventory Search after an Arrest ..............................................................................165 Consent in Vehicle Searches ....................................................................................165 Notes .........................................................................................................................166 Chapter 11 Sniffs of Luggage, Transportation Facilities, and Hotels .........................................173 U.S. v. Place .............................................................................................................173 State Constitutions and Place Situations ..................................................................174 Reasons for Investigatory Stops ...............................................................................175 Training Exercises ...............................................................................................176