Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus) CARE MANUAL CREATED BY THE AZA Polar Bear Species Survival Plan ® IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE AZA Bear Taxonomic Advisory Group Association of Zoos and Aquariums 1 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Published by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in association with the AZA Animal Welfare Committee Formal Citation: AZA Bear TAG 2009. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual. Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD. Original Completion Date: 16 December 2009 Authors and Significant Contributors: See Appendix J AZA Staff Editors: Dr. Debborah Colbert, AZA Vice President, Conservation & Science Reviewers: Dr. Randi Meyerson (ACM Coordinator, Toledo Zoo) Dr. Joseph C.E. Barber, (AZA, ACM Consultant) Dr. Don Moore (SI-NZP, AZA Bear TAG Advisor) Dr. Barbara Kohn (APHIS) Dr. Steven Amstrup (USGS) Dr. Lydia Kolter (EAZA Bear TAG Chair) Barbara Henry, M.S. (AZA Nutrition SAG, Curator of Nutrition, Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden) Ann Ward, M.S. (AZA Nutrition SAG, Director, Nutritional Services for Fort Worth Zoo) Cover Photo Credit: Randi Myerson Disclaimer: This manual presents a compilation of knowledge provided by recognized animal experts based on the current science, practice, and technology of animal management. The manual assembles basic requirements, best practices, and animal care recommendations to maximize capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare. The manual should be considered a work in progress, since practices continue to evolve through advances in scientific knowledge. The use of information within this manual should be in accordance with all local, state, and federal laws and regulations concerning the care of animals. While some government laws and regulations may be referenced in this manual, these are not all-inclusive nor is this manual intended to serve as an evaluation tool for those agencies. The recommendations included are not meant to be exclusive management approaches, diets, medical treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific needs of individual animals and particular circumstances in each institution. Commercial entities and media identified are not necessarily endorsed by AZA. The statements presented throughout the body of the manual do not represent AZA standards of care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes. Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5 Taxonomic Classification ...................................................................................................................... 5 Genus, Species, and Status ................................................................................................................. 5 General Information ............................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1. Ambient Environment ........................................................................................................ 9 1.1 Temperature and Humidity ............................................................................................................ 9 1.2 Light ................................................................................................................................................. 10 1.3 Water and Air Quality .................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Sound and Vibration ..................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment ................................................................................. 12 2.1 Space and Complexity .................................................................................................................. 12 2.2 Safety and Containment ............................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 3. Transport ............................................................................................................................ 18 3.1 Preparations ................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2 Protocols ......................................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 4. Social Environment ........................................................................................................... 21 4.1 Group Structure and Size ............................................................................................................ 21 4.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics ........................................................................................ 21 4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions .............................................................................................. 22 Chapter 5. Nutrition .............................................................................................................................. 24 5.1 Nutritional Requirements .............................................................................................................. 24 5.2 Diets ................................................................................................................................................ 27 5.3 Nutritional Evaluations .................................................................................................................. 31 Chapter 6. Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 34 6.1 Veterinary Services ....................................................................................................................... 34 6.2 Identification Methods ................................................................................................................... 35 6.3 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations ........................................ 36 6.4 Quarantine ...................................................................................................................................... 36 6.5 Preventive Medicine ...................................................................................................................... 38 6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization ...................................................................................... 43 6.7 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation.............................................. 45 Chapter 7. Reproduction ...................................................................................................................... 49 7.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior ..................................................................................... 49 7.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology ............................................................................................ 49 7.3 Pregnancy and Parturition ........................................................................................................... 50 7.4 Birthing Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 52 7.5 Assisted Rearing ........................................................................................................................... 52 7.6 Contraception ................................................................................................................................. 54 Chapter 8. Behavior Management ..................................................................................................... 56 8.1 Animal Training .............................................................................................................................. 56 8.2 Environmental Enrichment ........................................................................................................... 57 8.3 Staff and Animal Interactions ...................................................................................................... 59 8.4 Staff Skills and Training ................................................................................................................ 59 Chapter 9. Research .............................................................................................................................. 61 9.1 Current Investigations ................................................................................................................... 61 Association of Zoos and Aquariums 3 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual 9.2 Future Research Needs ............................................................................................................... 62 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 65 References ............................................................................................................................................... 66 Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter ........................................................................ 72 Appendix B: Polar Bear Body Condition Score Sheet ................................................................. 75 Appendix C: Acquisition/Disposition Policy................................................................................... 76 Appendix D: Recommended Quarantine Procedures .................................................................. 80 Appendix E: IATA Polar Bear Transport Crate Requirements ................................................... 82 Appendix F: Statement on the Safety of Feeding Anadromous Fish ....................................... 84 Appendix G: Nutritionally Complete Food and Meat Mix Specifications ................................ 86 Appendix H: Polar Bear SSP Program Necropsy Protocol ......................................................... 88 Appendix I: Polar Bear Cub Formula Examples ............................................................................ 91 Appendix J: Contributors to the AZA Polar Bear Care Manual ................................................. 94 Association of Zoos and Aquariums 4 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Introduction Preamble AZA accreditation standards, relevant to the topics discussed in this manual, are highlighted in boxes such as this throughout the document (Appendix A). AZA accreditation standards are continuously being raised or added. Staff from AZA-accredited institutions are required to know and comply with all AZA accreditation standards, including those most recently listed on the AZA website (www.aza.org) which might not be included in this manual. Taxonomic Classification Table 1: Taxonomic classification for polar bears. Classification Taxonomy Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Carnivora Family Ursidae Genus, Species, and Status Table 2: Genus, species, and status information for polar bears. IUCN Red List Genus Species Common Name USA Status AZA Status Status Polar bear; Ice Species Survival Ursus maritimus bear; Sea bear; Threatened Vulnerable A3c Plan® Program White bear General Information The information contained within this Polar Bear Care Manual (PBCM) provides a compilation of animal care and management knowledge that has been gained from recognized species experts, including Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), Species Survival Plan® (SSP) Programs, biologists, veterinarians, nutritionists, reproduction physiologists, behaviorists and researchers. They are based on the most current science, practices, and technologies used in animal care and management and are valuable resources that enhance animal welfare by providing information about the basic recommendations needed and best practices known for caring for ex situ polar bear populations. This PBCM is considered a living document that is updated as new information becomes available and at a minimum of every five years. Information presented is intended solely for the education and AZA Accreditation Standard training of zoo and aquarium personnel at AZA-accredited institutions. Recommendations included in the PBCM are not (1.1.1) The institution must comply with all exclusive management approaches, diets, medical treatments, or relevant local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations. It is understood procedures, and may be adapted to meet the specific needs of that, in some cases, AZA accreditation individual animals and particular circumstances in each institution. standards are more stringent than Statements presented throughout the body of the manuals do not existing laws and regulations. In these represent specific AZA accreditation standards of care unless cases the AZA standard must be met. specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes. AZA-accredited institutions which care for polar bears must comply with all relevant local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations; AZA accreditation standards that are more stringent than these laws and regulations must be met (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.1.1). The ultimate goal of this PBCM is to facilitate excellent polar bear management and care, which will ensure superior polar bear welfare at AZA-accredited institutions. Ultimately, success in our polar bear Association of Zoos and Aquariums 5 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual management and care will allow AZA-accredited institutions to contribute to polar bear conservation, and ensure that polar bear are in our future for generations to come. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are carnivorous marine mammals and are the largest bear species in the Ursidae family (Table 1). They are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA, 2007), have recently been listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (1973), are listed as vulnerable under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, and are managed as an SSP Program within AZA (Table 2). They show a pronounced sexual dimorphism not seen in other species of bears (Stirling & Derocher, 1990), with adult males being larger and heavier than females. Kolenosky, et al. (1992) calculated the average weight of males to be 489 kg (1078 lb ), with some individuals weighing 654 kg (1442 lb ), or even greater than 800 kg (1763 lb ) (DeMaster & Stirling, 1981). Females are smaller, and generally do not weigh more than approximately 400 kg (881 lb ), although some individuals may put on enough body fat to weigh more than 500 kg (1102 lb ) just prior to giving birth (Ramsay 1986; Stirling, 1998). Polar bear neonates are extremely altricial, weighing approximately 600-700 g (1.3-1.5 lb ), and are initially blind and only lightly furred (Ramsay & Dunbrack, 1986). When standing in a quadrupedal posture, the shoulder height of adult polar bears can reach up to 1.6-1.7 m (5.3-5.6 ft ), and they generally measure between 2.4-2.6 m (8-8.4 ft ) in length (DeMaster & Stirling, 1981), with some males measuring as long as 2.85 m (9.4 ft ) (Brown, 1993). Standing bipedally, large males can reach almost 4 m (13.1 ft ) (Lynch, 1993). Polar bear skulls are similar to the skulls of other bear species, and can be smaller than skulls from large brown bears as they are typically narrower across the palate (Kurten, 1964). Polar bears show a similar dental formula with the other bear species: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 2/3 (Stirling, 1998). To enable powerful bites, the jaw of the polar bear shows a long diastema between the canines and molariform teeth at the back of the jaw. Jaw adaptations for their predatory lifestyle include smaller molariform teeth that have a smaller surface area (reducing the functional grinding surface of the teeth), but more pronounced carnassial teeth that are effective for shearing muscle and hide of prey (Burton & Burton, 2002). Males typically have larger canine teeth than females (Kurten, 1955). The skin of polar bears is black, and is completely covered by dense pelage, except for the tip of the nose. Even the footpads can be covered with fur in the late winter, and this fur may serve to insulate the bears’ feet, and may provide greater traction on the ice and snow (Stirling, 1998). The skin of the footpads is similar to that of other bears species, and is made of a cornified epidermis (Storer & Tevis, 1955; Ewer, 1973). The fur is made up of a thick, dense underfur and guard hairs of various lengths (DeMaster & Stirling, 1981). These guard hairs are notable because they have a hollow medulla. While the pelage is unpigmented, it typically appears somewhat yellowish because of impurities (e.g., food oils/blood) that become incorporated into the fur (Ortisland & Ronald, 1978; Grojean, et al. 1980), and can appear green in zoos and aquariums if pool algae present in the bears’ habitat areas become lodged within the guard hairs (Lewin & Robinson, 1979). Wild polar bears generally molt in late April/May, and molting is complete by late summer. In situ populations of polar bears are solitary, and no long-term, social interactions between adults have been recorded (Meyerson, 2007); females and nursing cubs form the only long-term (~2.5 years) social grouping. When the marine ecosystem is resource poor, cubs can remain with their mothers for 3.5-4.5 years (Stirling, 1998). Adult bears can be seen in closer proximity of one another in resource-rich environments (e.g., when large amounts of food are available) when there seems to be a degree of social tolerance between them in these situations. However, these interactions are generally resource- dependent. During the breeding season, males can be found in close proximity to females prior to and during copulation (Stirling, 1998), but they do not play any role in cub rearing or care. Adult females with yearling cubs generally avoid interaction with adult males, as there is a risk of predation by males upon the cubs, especially when food resources are scarce (DeMaster & Stirling, 1981). The breeding season for ex situ and in situ polar bears is usually between March-May (Meyerson, 2007); most cubs are born in November and December and emerge from their dens with their mothers in March and April (Meyerson, 2007). Polar bears are the largest terrestrial carnivore and the diet of in situ populations consists of ringed seals, especially their pups, and the bearded seal (Meyerson, 2007). Polar bears use a variety of hunting techniques, including taking the seal pups out of their ice birthing dens, pulling them out of the water at breathing holes, and hunting them on the ice surface. Other food sources include beluga whales, reindeer, and walrus. Polar bears have also been observed consuming kelp along shores, as bears wait Association of Zoos and Aquariums 6 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual for the sea ice to freeze over in the winter (Meyerson, 2007). The function of kelp eating is unknown, but may serve to provide limited nutrition to the bears, or may be a displacement behavior that can function to decrease aggression between the hungry, congregating bears when they are in close proximity to one another. Additional information on the behavior of polar bears in the wild can be found in Stirling (1998), and from the Polar Bears International website (www.polarbearsinternational.org). Laws and regulations about standards of care for polar bears: AZA-accredited institutions caring for polar bears must abide by all AZA Accreditation Standards as set forth in the AZA Accreditation Standards and Related Policies document (AZA, 2009). Given the polar bear’s threatened status under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, additional laws, regulations, and standards of care must be followed in addition to the specified AZA Accreditation Standards. The following list provides regulations that affect the management of polar bears in zoos and aquariums. Institutions must be familiar with these regulations, have access to the documents containing these regulations, and, where appropriate, must fully comply with the standards of care detailed within them. AZA Accreditation Standards require that these regulations must be followed as appropriate for the specific individual animals in question. Regulations pertaining to polar bears (and other marine mammals) are contained within: - USDA Animal Welfare Act (AWA) and Animal Welfare Regulations (AWR, 2005) - Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA 2007) - Manitoba ‘Polar Bear Protection Act’ (PBPA, 2002)* - International Air Transport Association (IATA, 2007) - Endangered Species Act (ESA, 1973) * Only institutions seeking to acquire polar bears from the Manitoba region are subject to the regulations stated in the Polar Bear Protection Act (PBPA 2002), and there is continuing debate about how these standards apply to AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums. The AZA Bear TAG recommends that all institutions housing polar bears be aware of and consider the management and housing approaches described in the Polar Bear Protection Act (PBPA 2002). For more information, contact the AZA Polar Bear SSP Program Coordinator. Polar bears are covered under the USDA Animal Welfare Act in the marine mammal section Subpart E 3.100-3.118 (AWR 2005). Regulations regarding parameters such as water quality, and minimum exhibit and pool sizes can be found within these regulations. It should be noted that these are the minimum standards enacted by law, and the recommendations provided within this Polar Bear Care Manual should be carefully considered as best practices that go beyond these minimum requirements. Polar bears are listed under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA 2007) and under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II. The primary purpose of the MMPA is to ensure marine mammal populations are maintained at (or restored to) healthy levels. MMPA requirements vary both by the legal status of the individual polar bear under the MMPA, and by the type of activity requested (see Meyerson. 2007 for additional information). The primary purpose of CITES is to ensure wild species in international trade are not exploited unsustainably (Meyerson, 2007). Polar bears have recently been listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (1973). The primary purpose of the ESA is to prevent the extinction of native and non-native animals and plants by providing measures to help alleviate the loss of species and their habitats (Meyerson, 2007). Regulations and specific standards for polar bear associated with the Endangered Species Act are currently under review by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and will be included within future versions of this manual Endangered Species Act regulations affect the requirements stated by the MMPA (2007) for polar bear display and importation. More information on the regulations associated with the Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972) and CITES can be found in Meyerson (2007). The AZA Bear TAG and Polar Bear SSP Program should be contacted for more information about specific ESA (1973) requirements, and for details on permits required for the display and transport of bears. Terms and definitions: The following terms are used throughout the Polar Bear Care Manual, and definitions have been provided below to avoid confusion: - Cubbing den: An area separated from other management areas where pregnant females are denned up for cubbing. - Den: Off-exhibit management area, where individuals can be separated for feeding, veterinary procedures, etc. Association of Zoos and Aquariums 7 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual - Exhibit area: “Area of the ex situ habitat where a polar bear may be viewed by the public and is considered the bears’ primary living space” (PBPA, 2002); can be indoor and/or outdoor. - Off-exhibit area (also called “management area”): An area of the ex situ habitat where public viewing of the polar bear is not permitted, which includes isolation areas, medical treatment areas, separation areas, individual animal dens, and cubbing dens. Under the USDA Animal Welfare Act (AWA, section 3.104(a)) and Animal Welfare Regulations (AWR, 2005), all habitat areas and pools are required to meet AWA space requirements (AWR, 2005). AWA space requirements apply to all portions of the animal exhibit and management areas (AWR, 2005). Smaller management areas can be available for use, but cannot be used for extended holding of bears. See Chapter 2, section 2.1 and AWR (2005) for additional information. Association of Zoos and Aquariums 8 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Chapter 1. Ambient Environment 1.1 Temperature and Humidity Animal collections within AZA-accredited institutions must be protected from weather detrimental to their health (AZA AZA Accreditation Standard Accreditation Standard 1.5.7). There has been no scientific (1.5.7) The animal collection must be determination of minimum or maximum temperatures for polar protected from weather detrimental to bears cared for in zoos and aquariums. Though polar bears their health. originate from an arctic environment, most are tolerant of fluctuating temperatures, as summers in Churchill, Manitoba can average 17.8°C (64°F ), but can reach more than 26°C (79°F ) degrees. It is not known if there is an optimal temperature range for polar bears or if and how they utilize environmental resources to thermoregulate within this wide range of environmental conditions. Polar bears cared for by zoos and aquariums, should have access to shade throughout the day, especially during the warmer months of the year, regardless of the temperature and level of acclimation by the bears, and must do so to comply with regulations in the Polar Bear Protection Act (PBPA 2002). The orientation of and features within the exhibit can affect the range of temperatures the bears will experience. Hills, trees, shrubs, branches, rocks, and stumps are good pieces of habitat furniture that can be used to provide shade throughout the day. Institutions in warmer climates should consider how to provide cooler areas for their bears using approaches such as free-access to air-conditioned spaces, chilled water, or ice piles. Artificial shade structures that can also incorporate sprinklers and misters, and wind generating fans, are approaches that have also been used. It is important that several cooling areas be made available if multiple bears are on exhibit together. If these features are not available, access to temperature regulated indoor holding areas is recommended. Polar bears without young should have only minimal unheated shelter at night, although institution- specific management needs may dictate that they be brought into nighttime housing. Older polar bears, or ones with minimal coats, may require additional bedding or supplemental heat to keep them comfortable in the coldest weather. Heat stress is a greater risk to healthy polar bears than cold. In one zoo a female polar bear who cubbed in October abandoned her cubs when the outside temperatures were still warm. AZA institutions with polar bear exhibits that rely on climate AZA Accreditation Standard control life-support systems must ensure that their system is equipped with a warning mechanism should this system fail and an (10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for emergency backup systems to fall back upon in these instances. the animal collection, including but not limited to plumbing, heating, cooling, This equipment should be included in a documented preventative aeration, and filtration, must be equipped maintenance program and maintained under a maintenance with a warning mechanism, and agreement or records should indicate that staff members are emergency backup systems must be trained to conduct specified maintenance (AZA Accreditation available. All mechanical equipment should be under a preventative Standard 10.2.1). The AZA Bear TAG and Polar Bear SSP maintenance program as evidenced Program recognizes that a variety of climate control systems and through a record-keeping system. Special equipment, manufactured by different companies, has been equipment should be maintained under a successfully used to maintain appropriate temperatures for polar maintenance agreement, or a training record should show that staff members bears. are trained for specified maintenance of In situ populations of polar bears may experience a variety of special equipment. humidity ranges depending on the season and their location (e.g., on the ice during winter, and on land during summer in Hudson’s Bay and the Alaska North Slope), however It is not known if there is an optimal humidity range for them. In zoos and aquariums, great care should be taken to monitor the interaction between high temperatures and high humidity to ensure that bears are provided with a gradient of temperatures and humidity within their environment and have the ability to regulate their own temperatures at all times through their behavior, but there is currently no specific recommendation for humidity levels. A varied and complex environment provides the bears with choices and control over their environment, both of which are essential to animal welfare. Techniques to raise or lower humidity within indoor and outdoor exhibits include air conditioning, misters, sprinklers, fans, and pools in which the bears can swim. The use of self-draining substrates and provision of nesting materials (see Chapter 2, section 2.1) can also minimize any problems that high humidity can have on the skin and coat of the bears. Association of Zoos and Aquariums 9 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Care Manual Until specific recommendations can be made, appropriate temperature and humidity guidelines should be outcome-based, ensuring that bears do not experience heat stroke, skin or hair-coat problems, and show no significant deviations in activity (e.g., increased lethargy, decreased activity) in environments where the ambient humidity and temperature are high. 1.2 Light Careful consideration should be given to the spectral, intensity, and duration of light needs for all animals in the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums, however, no information is known about the effect that daily changes in light intensity or seasonal changes in light intensity and duration have on polar bear health or behavior. Because of their large size and activity patterns, polar bears should be maintained in outdoor habitats under conditions of natural light and any indoor areas, except cubbing dens, should have skylights to provide natural lighting. Additional indoor lighting should mimic natural light patterns of the geographic area of the exhibit. Indoor areas should have sufficient light for animal caretakers to work safely within them for exhibit cleaning and maintenance. 1.3 Water and Air Quality AZA-accredited institutions must have a regular program of monitoring water quality for polar bear pools and a written record AZA Accreditation Standard must document long-term water quality results and chemical (1.5.9) The institution must have a regular additions (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.9). Monitoring selected program of monitoring water quality for collections of fish, pinnipeds, cetaceans, water quality parameters provides confirmation of the correct and other aquatic animals. A written operation of filtration and disinfection of the water supply available record must be maintained to document for the animals. Additionally, high quality water enhances animal long-term water quality results and health programs instituted for polar bears (see Chapter 6 for more chemical additions. information on veterinary care). Polar bears should have access to clean, potable drinking water at all times, and must do so to comply with the Polar Bear Protection Act (PBPA, 2002). The AZA Bear TAG defines “potable water” as water that would be appropriate for human consumption as it exits the tap. Watering devices may consist of exhibit/habitat built-in containers, and automatic drinkers. However, automatic watering devices (Lixit- type) should be used with caution with polar bears, due to the potential for the bears to damage them or their teeth. Regardless of size, potable water containers should be cleaned and disinfected daily; built-in streams and pools should be cleaned at least weekly, unless appropriately filtered and disinfected by an institutionally-approved filtering system. Algae control can be performed using applications of copper sulphate or simazine, as well as denitrification of the water, although each institution should work with veterinarians to ensure the safety of the bears whenever chemical additives are added to the habitat water sources. Any chemicals added to the water must in no way harm or cause discomfort to the bear (AWR, 2005). Tests for pH, salinity (for saltwater pools), and any chemicals that are added to the water should be performed daily. All water quality tests must be recorded, and the records must be readily available for inspection (AWR, 2005). When testing water quality, water samples should be taken 61-91 cm (2-3 ft) below the surface. Coliform bacteria levels must be checked at least weekly, and must not exceed 1,000 MPN (most probable number) per 100 ml (3.38 oz) of water (AWR, 2005). A coliform bacteria count over 1,000 MPN is an indicator of potentially harmful conditions. If there is a high reading, conditions must be corrected immediately by changing the water, reducing the number of animals having access to the pool, chlorinating the pool water, or lowering water levels and physically cleaning the pool (AWR, 2005). Ozone can be utilized for disinfection of polar bear water sources. When ozone is used, institutions should develop specific water filtration and disinfection protocols. The following information on the use of ozone has been adapted from approaches used at Sea World (see www.zoolex.org). Ozone disinfection can be achieved by using a 10% by-pass flow supplied by a 40 g ozonator through dry air (2 mg/l) that is mixed with filtered water in a vortex mixing chamber with a contact time of two minutes. The oxidation reduction potential (ORP) taken from the mixing chamber can be used to measure and monitor the automation of the ozonator, along with oxidation-reduction probes in the return to pool line. In all cases, a back-up oxidization treatment system should be available (e.g., 1.0 mg/l sodium hypochlorite), and should become operative if the ozonator experiences any mechanical difficulties. Association of Zoos and Aquariums 10