2005 ﻭﻴﻨﻭﻴ ،55-37ﺹ ،ﻲﻨﺎﺜﻟﺍ ﺩﺩﻌﻟﺍ – ﺭﺸﻋ ﺙﻟﺎﺜﻟﺍ ﺩﻠﺠﻤﻟﺍ (ﺔﻴﻨﺎﺴﻨﻹﺍ ﺕﺎﺴﺍﺭﺩﻟﺍ ﺔﻠﺴﻠﺴ) ﺔﻴﻤﻼﺴﻹﺍ ﺔﻌﻤﺎﺠﻟﺍ ﺔﻠﺠﻤ ISSN 1726-6807, http://www.iugaza.edu/ara/research/ Point of View in "The Star" by Alasdair Gray Sami Breem Islamic University-Gaza Palestine, PO Box 108 [email protected] ﺏﺘﺎﻜﻠﻟ "ﻡﺠﻨﻟﺍ" ﺔﺼﻗ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﺴﻴﺌﺭﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺸﻟﺍ ﺭﻅﻨ ﺔﻬﺠﻭ ﺔﺴﺍﺭﺩﻟ ﺙـﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺍﺫـﻫ ﻑﺩـﻬﻴ : ﺹـﺨﻠﻤ ﻙﻟﺫﻭ ﻲﺒﺩﻷﺍ لﻴﻠﺤﺘﻠﻟ ﺔﻓﺎﻀﻹﺎﺒ ﺹﻨﻠﻟ ﻱﻭﻐﻠﻟﺍ لﻴﻠﺤﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻤﻫﺃ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﺴﺍﺭﺩﻟﺍ ﺩﻜﺅﺘ ﺙﻴﺤ ،ﻱﺍﺭﺠ ﺭﻴﺩـﺴﻻﺃ ﺽﺭﻐﻟﻭ .(1989 ﻥﻭﺴﺒﻤﺴﻭ ﺭﺘﺭﺎﻜ) ﻲﻓ ﺀﺎﺠ ﺎﻤﻜ ﺏﺎﻁﺨﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺒﻭﻠﺴﺃ لﺎﺠﻤ ﻲـﻓ ﺕﺎﻴﺭـﻅﻨ ﻡﺍﺩﺨﺘـﺴﺎﺒ ﺔﻓﺭﻌﻤ ﺓﺩﺎﻴﺯﻟ .(1975 ﻱﺭﻴﺒ) ﻲﻓ ﺀﺎﺠ ﺎﻤﻜ ﺔﻴﺩﻌﺘﻤﻟﺍ لﺎﻌﻓﻷﺍ ﺝﺫﻭﻤﻨ ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﻡﺩﺨﺘـﺴﻴ ﻱﻭـﻐﻠﻟﺍ لﻴـﻠﺤﺘﻟﺍ ﺹﻨﻟﺍ ﻥﻋ ﺕﺎﻤﻭﻠﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺽﻌﺒ ﺀﺎﻁﻋﻹ ﺔﻤﺩﻘﻤ : ﺔﻴﻟﺎﺘﻟﺍ ﺕﺍﻭﻁﺨﻟﺍ ﻉﺎﺒﺘﺍ ﻡﺘ "ﻥﻭﺭﻴﻤﺎﻜ" ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺸ ﻡﻟﺎﻌﺒ ﺉﺭﺎﻘﻟﺍ ﺭﻅﻨ ﺔﻬﺠﻭﻟ لﻴﻠﺤﺘ ، ﺔﻴﺩﻌﺘﻤﻟﺍ لﺎﻌﻓﻷﺍ ﺝﺫﻭﻤﻨ ﺹﺨﻠﻤ ، ﺏﺎﻁﺨﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺒﻭﻠﺴﺃﻭ ﺭﻅﻨﻟﺍ ﺔﻬﺠﻭﺒ ﺩﻭـﺼﻘﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﻡﺍﺩﺨﺘﺴﺎﺒ ﻱﻭﻐ ﻟ لﻴﻠﺤﺘ (ﺏ) ،ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺏﺘﺎﻜ ﺎﻫﺍﺭﻴ ﺎﻤﻜ ﺔﻴﻠﻴﻠﺤﺘ ﺕﺎﻅﺤﻼﻤﻭ ﺭﻴﺴﻔﺘ (ﺃ) : ﺔﻴﺴﻴﺌﺭﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺸﻟﺍ لﻴﻠﺤﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻤﻫﺃ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺩﻜﺅﺘ ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺔﻤﺘﺎﺨﻭ ﺞﺌﺎﺘﻨﻟﺍ ﺔﺸﻗﺎﻨﻤ .(ﺃ) ﻲﻓ ﺩﺭﻭﺎﻤ ﺩﻴﻜﺄﺘﻟ ﺔﻴﺩﻌﺘﻤﻟﺍ لﺎﻌﻓﻷﺍ ﺝﺫﻭـﻤﻨ ﺭﻴﻐﻴ ﻥﺃ ﻉﺎﻁﺘﺴﺍ ﻱﺫﻟﺍ "ﻥﻭﺭﻴﻤﺎﻜ" ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺸﻟ لﻀﻓﺃ ﻡﻬﻓ ﻰﻠﻋ لﻭﺼﺤﻠﻟ ﻱﻭﻐﻠﻟﺍ لﻴﻠﺤﺘﻟﺎﺒ ﺎﹰﺒﻭﺤﺼﻤ ﻲﺒﺩﻷﺍ .ﻡﻭﺠﻨﻟﺍ ﺩﺤﺃ ﺢﺒﺼﻴﻭ ﻲﺴﺎﻘﻟﺍ ﻪﻤﻟﺎﻋ Abstract: This paper examines point of view in Alasdair Gray's short story "The Star" from a discourse stylistics perspective with the objective of raising the reader's awareness of the main character's world as manifested in the language of the text. The analysis emphasizes an integration of language and literature and draws upon theories developed in the general field of discourse stylistics (Carter and Simpson 1989). A modified transitivity model (Berry 1975) is used for the purposes of linguistic analysis. To understand Cameron's world and for the purposes of this research, the following sections are considered: an introduction includes definitions and background information ("The Star", point of view, discourse stylistics); a summary of the transitivity model (Berry 1975); an analysis of point of view in the story. The analysis will focus on: observations/intuitions about the text followed with linguistic analysis/support using Berry's transitivity model. The discussion of results and the conclusion show how observations/intuitions about the text combined with linguistic evidence enhance our understanding of Cameron's world which magically transforms his miserable life to become one of the stars. 1 Introduction "The Star" by Alasdair Gray is a short story (565 words) and was published in 1955. Gray is a Scottish writer, born in Glasgow in 1934 where he still lives, Collie and Slater (1993: 83). "He is also an artist, and worked as an illustrator before turning to fiction in his forties. He has published several novels and a collection of short stories." Bernstein (1990), quoted in www.complete-review.com, describes Gray as: "…one of the most important living writers in English. His satirical blend of realism and fantasy and his compassionate use of humor and sorrow distinguish his novels, short stories, plays and poems in the crowded field of contemporary Point of View in "The Star"… literature." Lanark is his first novel and his most acclaimed work. "The Star" combines elements of realism, fantasy and science fiction, plus clever use of typography and illustrations. This paper examines point of view in Alasdair Gray’s short story "The Star" with the objective of raising the reader's awareness of the main character's world as manifested in the language of the text. Cameron is the centre of action in the story. He seems to have suffered the hardships of living in poverty. Now, he feels lonely, sometimes insulted and neglected. To overcome this problem, he created his own imaginative/fictional world where he enjoys the company of his star/marble. The story represents a third-person limited omniscient narrative. The narrator is non- participant and tells the story from Cameron’s point of view. The focus is on the main character’s thoughts, perceptions, feelings, cognition and inner thoughts. The author chooses to represent the world-view of Cameron inviting the reader to see the events from the boy’s perspective. The analysis in this paper adopts a discourse stylistics perspective which suggests an integration of stylistics and the socio-historical effects surrounding the text. This approach stresses the importance of other disciplines for the study of literature in addition to the words on the page. Carter and Simpson (1989) point to the importance of an integrated approach of language and literature. There is an increasing emphasis on contextualization of texts (15). Description of texts is not neutral and value-free. Extrinsic aspects of the text are to be valued in discourse stylistics. Therefore, in addition to systematic linguistic textual description, discourse stylisticians are not to ignore such factors as: the role of gender, class, and ideology in the interpretation of texts. Carter and Simpson (1989: 16) explain: Issues of class, gender, socio-political determination and ideology can never be very far away from analysis of the words on the page. Discourse analysis should…be concerned not simply with the micro- contexts of the effects of words across sentences or conversational turns but also with the macro-contexts of larger social patterns…. They agree with Roman Jakobson's statement about the relationship between linguistics and literary studies. "…[A] linguist deaf to the poetic function of language and a literary scholar indifferent to linguistic problems and unconversant with linguistic methods are equally flagrant anachronism," Jakobson in Carter and Sympson (1989: 1) The analysis of point of view in this paper values the importance of both: contextual and linguistic aspects of The Star. Analysis starts with a traditional/contextual account followed with linguistic support using Berry's transitivity model. 1.1 Transitivity Model For the purposes of this paper, a modified transitivity model will be introduced for the analysis of point of view in "The Star" by Alasdair Gray. The model is inspired by ideas originally found in Halliday (1970, 1971, 1973, 1978, 1985), and other works that followed: Berry (1975:149-153), Kennedy in Carter (1982: 83- 99), Burton in Carter (1982: 195-214), Simpson (1993) and Breem (1999). 38 ﻡﻴﺭﺒﻟﺍ ﻲﻤﺎﺴ Wales (1989: 466) defines transitivity: (1) Transitive in traditional GRAMMAR, in the categorization of VERBS and CLAUSES, describes structures which have a SUBJECT and verb, and an OBJECT which is affected… (2) In the FUNCTIONAL/SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR as developed by Halliday, the transitive verb system is part of a broader, semantic network of relations involving processes (the verb phrase), participant ROLES (the noun phrase and circumstances (adverbials)… So the traditional transitive verbs themselves are categorized, by grammatical as well as semantic criteria, into different types of processes: the major ones being material (jump; swim), mental (notice, fear), and relational (is, stands for). The tradional categories of subject and object are analysed in terms of the semantic roles of AGENT, beneficiary, goal, etc.; and other clausal elements (i.e. adverbial) are analysed in terms of their function as indicating manner, cause, instrument, etc. Transitivity has also been pronounced as the grammar of processes. Berry (1975: 150) states it clearly: In English Grammar we make choices between different types of process, between different types of participant, between different types of circumstance, between different numbers of participants and circumstances, between different ways of combining processes, participants and circumstances. These choices are known collectively as the transitivity model. Readers may find transitivity useful to pay specific attention to the question ‘who does what to whom?’ Burton in Carter (1982: 200). The Process, therefore, includes three components: the process which is represented by the verb, participants in the process, and circumstance. For a clear and precise account of transitivity, readers should consult Berry (1975). The following model is adapted to fit the needs of this paper. That is to provide linguistic evidence for an impressionistic/intuitive reading of point of view in "The Star". 39 Point of View in "The Star"… Transitivity 1- PROCESS material action intention supervention event mental internalized reaction perception cognition Externalized (verbal interaction) relational attributive identifying actor 2- PARTICIPANT goal/object of result beneficiary/recipient instrument reason 3- CIRCUMSTANCE time place 1.2 Position of Extracts in Relation to Text "The Star" is about Cameron, the main character who lives in a tenement in Scotland. The boy seems to have suffered the hardships of life either at home or in the world outside. To escape his troubled reality, he finds refuge in the company of an imaginative world of a star which is, to the reader, a glass marble. Cameron has enjoyed the company of the star for two weeks where he has created his own, happy world. Collie and Slater (1993: 85) write short notes on the story: A story set in a working class area of Scotland. A young boy’s apparently humdrum life is magically transformed by a ‘star’ which offers him a dramatic, scintillating escape. The story’s poignancy lies in 40 ﻡﻴﺭﺒﻟﺍ ﻲﻤﺎﺴ the vivid contrast set up between the boy’s lonely, constrained life and the boundless freedom he senses in the world beyond. The analysis covers the whole text which is divided into three extracts to reflect the development of Cameron’s world and his experience with the star. The first extract describes the beginning of the story. Cameron notices three falling stars. One ‘had fallen beyond the horizon, in Canada perhaps, ‘[t]he second was nearer, just beyond the iron works and the third fell into the backyard.’ The rest of the extract illustrates Cameron’s search for the star. ‘He found it in the midden of a decayed cabbage leaf.’ The second extract is the middle part of the story. It describes Cameron’s experience with the star. Now, he lives in his imaginative world, ‘sometimes seeing the snow-flake, sometimes a flower, jewel, moon or landscape. The third extract is the closing part of the story. Cameron takes the star with him to school. The teacher finds out that the boy is busy playing with a glass marble while the rest of class are bowed over books. He has demanded the glass marble from Cameron. He has refused to give up his star, his only hope in this world. Cameron swallowed the star and he imagines becoming one of the stars: he fainted. "The Star" is a third-person narrative where the narrator is non-participant providing an account of events from the outside. The sentences are numbered for easy reference. 2 Extract One (1) A Star had fallen beyond the horizon, in Canada perhaps. (He had an aunt in Canada). (2) The Second was nearer, just beyond the iron works, so he was not surprised when the third fell into the backyard. (3) A flash of gold light lit the walls of the enclosing tenements and he heard a low musical chord. (4) The light turned deep red and went out, and he knew that somewhere below a star was cooling in the night air. (5) Turning from the window he saw that no-one else had noticed. (6) At the table his father, thoughtfully frowning, filled in a football coupon, his mother continued ironing under the pulley with its row of underwear. (7) He said in a small voice, ‘A’m gawn out.’ (8) His mother said, ‘See you’re no’ long then.’ (9) He slipped through the lobby and onto the stairhead, banging the door after him. (10) The stairs were cold and coldly lit at each landing by a weak electric bulb. (11) He hurried down three flights to the black silent yard and began hunting backward and forward, combing with his fingers the lank grass round the base of the clothes-pole. (12) He found it in the midden on a decayed cabbage leaf. 2.1 General Remarks On reading the first extract, readers may formulate the following responses: 41 Point of View in "The Star"… • The events describe the beginning of the story. Cameron imagines three stars falling from the sky. He is an imaginative child. • Cameron lives in a tenement and there are other words and expressions in the passage which suggest poverty: the lobby/stairhead (of a tenement flat); cold; coldly lit stairs; he slept with his brother. • The parents are busy: ‘his father, thoughtfully frowning, filled in a football coupon’; ‘his mother continued ironing. The boy does not receive enough care. He is ‘neglected’. • Cameron imagines one of the stars falling into the backyard. There, he ‘began hunting backward and forward, combing with his fingers the lank grass.’ • Cameron succeeds in finding his star/glass marble. • Cameron seems to be energetic and active. He keeps moving from one place to another reflecting an aspect of children's life. This excerpt is the introduction of the story which leads to the second extract where Cameron enjoys the company of the star. Moreover, the events represent counter events in the real world. The boy is just an example of many children who are deprived of care and feel neglected for different reasons: some are related to the family while others to the surrounding community. The above account offers a traditional/intuitive reading of Cameron’s world in the first extract. The next section provides an analysis to show how the boy’s world is linguistically constructed. 2.1.1 Analysis of Transitivity in Extract One This section aims to examine the working of language in the excerpt which gives rise to the responses in the section above. The analysis helps to develop an understanding of Cameron’s world as presented in each process in the text. 42 ﻡﻴﺭﺒﻟﺍ ﻲﻤﺎﺴ Sentence No. Actor Process 1a Star had fallen 1b Cameron had 2a Star was 2b Cameron was not surprised 2c Star fell 3a Something (light) lit 3b Cameron heard 4a Something (light) turned…red, went out 4b Cameron knew 4d Star was cooling 5a Cameron saw, no one had noticed 6a father filled 6b mother continued ironing 7a Cameron said 7b Cameron a’m gawn out 8a mother said 8b mother see 8c Cameron are 9 Cameron slipped through 10a something (stairs) were cold and coldly lit 11a Cameron hurried down 11b Cameron began hunting 12 Cameron found A simple count of the actors and their actions shows that: • Cameron as actor: 12 • Star as actor: 4 • Something (lights, stairs) as actor: 3 • Father as actor: 1 • Mother as actor: 3 The table above reveals a clear picture of who is doing what in Cameron’s world. He is the actor in twelve processes which suggest an active role putting him at the centre of action: ‘was not surprised’, ‘heard’, ‘knew’, ‘saw’, ‘said’, ‘a’m gawn out’, ‘slipped through’, ‘hurried down’, ‘began hunting’, ‘found’. The star is the actor in four processes taking the second active role. Father and mother are actors in less processes suggesting a minor/negative role in sentences (6) where ‘his father, thoughtfully frowning, fills in a football coupon, his mother continued ironing’, and in (7) where the ‘mother said, ‘See you are no long then.’ The two sentences are the only reference to the father and mother. [H]is father, thoughtfully frowning, fills in a football coupon', may suggest poverty, unemployment and need of money. The father seems to suffer too. He is a victim of the social environment 43 Point of View in "The Star"… which affects negatively the upbringing of children. In Cameron's case, he is neglected. Also, the mother seems to be busy doing the house work which may affect her relationship with her child. To take the discussion a step further, the following table shows the types of processes in the excerpt. Sentence Actor Process Type of Process No. 1a Star had fallen m-event 1b Cameron had relational 2a Star was relational 2b Cameron was not surprised mental internalized 2c Star fell m-event 3a (light) lit m-event 3b Cameron heard mental internalized 4a (light) turned…red and m-event went out m-event 4b Cameron knew mental internalized 4d Star was cooling m-event 5a Cameron saw…no one… mental internalized had noticed mental internalized 6a father filled m-action-intention 6b mother continued ironing m-action-intention 7a Cameron said mental externalized 7b Cameron a’m gawn out m-action-intention 8a mother said mental externalized 8b mother see mental internalized 8c Cameron are relational 9 Cameron slipped through m-action-intention 10 (stairs) were cold, coldly lit relational 11a Cameron hurried down m-action-intention 11b Cameron began hunting m-action-intention 12 Cameron found m-action-intention The table above brings out interesting features in the text. The processes assigned to Cameron are of two types: mental processes in (2b, 3b, 4b, 5a and 7a). These processes appear in the first half of the extract, Cameron is an imaginative child. The processes here are assigned to his perceptions: ‘was not surprised’, ‘heard’, ‘knew’, ‘saw…no one had noticed’ and ‘said’. In the second half of the extract, Cameron is involved in a number of material-action-intention processes (7b, 9, 11a, 11b and 12). This shows the active role of the boy and success in his search; he found the star. Cameron is an imaginative child. He believes that the glass marble is a real star and from now on he will enjoy the company of the star in order to escape the troubled world he lives in. The next table reveals who or what is affected in each process. 44 ﻡﻴﺭﺒﻟﺍ ﻲﻤﺎﺴ Sentence Who/what is affected in Process Type of Process No. each process 1a Star affects (nothing) had fallen m-event 1b Cameron affects (no) had relational 2a Star affects (no) was relational 2b Cameron affects (no) was not surprised mental internalized 2c Star affects (backyard) fell m-event 3a (light) affects (place) lit m-event 3b Cameron affects (no) heard mental internalized 4a Something (light) affects (no) turned…red and m-event went out m-event 4b Cameron affects (no) knew mental internalized 4d Star affects (no) was cooling m-event 5a Cameron affects (no) saw…no one mental internalized had noticed mental internalized 6a Father affects (coupon) filled m-action-intention 6b Mother affects (clothes) continued ironing m-action-intention 7a Cameron affects (no) said mental externalized 7b Cameron affects (no) a’m gawn out m-action-intention 8a Mother affects (no) said mental externalized 8b Mother affects (Cameron) see mental internalized 8c Cameron affects (no) are relational 9 Cameron affects (no) slipped through m-action-intention 10 something (stairs) affects (no) were cold/ly lit relational 11a Cameron affects (no) hurried m-action-intention 11b Cameron affects (no) began m-action-intention 12 Cameron affects (star) found m-action-intention This table offers a firmer grasp of 'who or what' is affected in each process. Cameron seems to be a lonely child. In most of the processes assigned to him, he affects nothing: (1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 7a, 7b, 8c, 9, 11a, and 11b). The only process in which Cameron affects something is in (12) where he found the star in a material- action-intention process. The father affects a football coupon in (6a), thoughtfully frowning, filled in a football coupon. The mother, also, affects clothes in (6a) ‘continued ironing’. This shows that less care is given to Cameron, he seems to be neglected. The transitivity analysis of extract one leads to interesting conclusions. The analysis shows 'who does what and to whom' in the main character’s world. Cameron feels lonely and does not receive enough care from his parents. However, Cameron seems to be an imaginative child. This leads to an active role in the next extract where he lives in his new created world, the world of the star/marble. 3 Extract Two (1) It was smooth and round, the size of a glass marble, and it shone 45 Point of View in "The Star"… with a light which made it seem to rest on a precious bit of green and yellow velvet. (2) He picked it up. (3) It was warm and filled his cupped palm with a ruby glow. (4) He put it in his pocket and went back upstairs. (5) That night in bed he had a closer look. (6) He slept with his brother who was not easily wakened. (7) Wriggling carefully far down under the sheets, he opened his palm and gazed. (8) The star shone white and blue, making the space around him like a cave in an iceberg. (9) He brought it close to his eye. (10) In its depth was the pattern of a snow-flake, the grandest thing he had ever seen. (11) He looked through the flake’s crystal lattice into an ocean of glittering blue- black waves under a sky full of huge galaxies. (12) He heard a remote lulling sound like the sound in a sea-shell, and fell asleep with the star safely clenched in his hand. (13) He enjoyed it for nearly two weeks, gazing at it each night below the sheets, sometimes seeing the snow-flake, sometimes a flower, jewel, moon or landscape. (14) At first he kept it hidden during the day but soon took to carrying it about with him, the smooth rounded gentle warmth in his pocket gave comfort when he felt insulted or neglected. 3.1 General Remarks On reading the second extract the following responses could be formulated: • The scene described above presents the boy’s experience with the star. • The passage reflects different pictures which indicate the main character’s wide imagination. • In addition to Cameron’s active involvement in the action, there is more emphasis on his perceptions, emotions and feelings. • The star gives comfort to the boy. • The child is lonely and he feels ‘insulted and neglected’. This conclusion invites the reader to think of the different reasons leading to such negative psychological problems. • Cameron’s star is a glass marble. 3.2 Analysis of Transitivity in Extract Two The analysis in this section aims to understand what is happening in the language of the text which gives rise to such responses. The table below explains the boy’s engagement in the events and his relationship with the star as represented in the clause by clause make-up of the text. 46