A d v a n c e s i n Geosciences Volume 19: Planetary Science (PS) ADVANCES IN GEOSCIENCES Editor-in-Chief: Wing-Huen Ip (National Central University, Taiwan) A 5-Volume Set A 6-Volume Set Volume 1: Solid Earth (SE) Volume 16: Atmospheric Science (AS) ISBN-10 981-256-985-5 ISBN-13 978-981-283-809-4 Volume 2: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-10 981-283-809-0 ISBN-10 981-256-984-7 Volume 17: Hydrological Science (HS) Volume 3: Planetary Science (PS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-811-7 ISBN-10 981-256-983-9 ISBN-10 981-283-811-2 Volume 4: Hydrological Science (HS) Volume 18: Ocean Science (OS) ISBN-10 981-256-982-0 ISBN-13 978-981-283-813-1 ISBN-10 981-283-813-9 Volume 5: Oceans and Atmospheres (OA) ISBN-10 981-256-981-2 Volume 19: Planetary Science (PS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-815-5 A 4-Volume Set ISBN-10 981-283-815-5 Volume 6: Hydrological Science (HS) Volume 20: Solid Earth (SE) ISBN-13 978-981-270-985-1 ISBN-13 978-981-283-817-9 ISBN-10 981-270-985-1 ISBN-10 981-283-817-1 Volume 7: Planetary Science (PS) Volume 21: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-13 978-981-270-986-8 ISBN-13 978-981-283-819-3 ISBN-10 981-270-986-X ISBN-10 981-283-819-8 Volume 8: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-13 978-981-270-987-5 ISBN-10 981-270-987-8 Volume 9: Solid Earth (SE), Ocean Science (OS) & Atmospheric Science (AS) ISBN-13 978-981-270-988-2 ISBN-10 981-270-988-6 A 6-Volume Set Volume 10: Atmospheric Science (AS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-611-3 ISBN-10 981-283-611-X Volume 11: Hydrological Science (HS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-613-7 ISBN-10 981-283-613-6 Volume 12: Ocean Science (OS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-615-1 ISBN-10 981-283-615-2 Volume 13: Solid Earth (SE) ISBN-13 978-981-283-617-5 ISBN-10 981-283-617-9 Volume 14: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-13 978-981-283-619-9 ISBN-10 981-283-619-5 Volume 15: Planetary Science (PS) ISBN-13 978-981-283-621-2 ISBN-10 981-283-621-7 A d v a n c e s i n Geosciences Volume 19: Planetary Science (PS) Editor-in-Chief Wing-Huen Ip National Central University, Taiwan Volume Editor-in-Chief Anil Bhardwaj Space Physics Laboratory Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, India World Scientific NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ADVANCES IN GEOSCIENCES A 6-Volume Set Volume 19: Planetary Science (PS) Copyright © 2010 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN-13 978-981-283-808-7 (Set) ISBN-10 981-283-808-2 (Set) ISBN-13 978-981-283-815-5 (Vol. 19) ISBN-10 981-283-815-5 (Vol. 19) Typeset by Stallion Press Email: [email protected] Printed in Singapore. May 14, 2010 10:33 AOGS - PS 9in x 6in b951-v19-fm FA EDITORS Editor-in-Chief: Wing-Huen Ip Volume 16: Atmospheric Science (AS) Editor-in-Chief: Jai Ho Oh Editors: G. P. Singh C. C. Wu K.-J. Ha Volume 17: Hydrological Science (HS) Editor-in-Chief: Namsik Park Editors: Ji Chen Joong-Hoon Kim Jinping Liu Young-Il Moon Sanjay Patil Ashok Kumar Rastogi Simon Toze Volume 18: Ocean Science (OS) Editor-in-Chief: Jianping Gan Editors: Minhan Dai Anne Mueller Murty Vadiamani Volume 19: Planetary Science (PS) Editor-in-Chief: Anil Bhardwaj Editors: Yasumasa Kasaba Guillermo Manuel Mun˜oz Caro Takashi Ito Paul Hartogh C. Y. Robert Wu S. A. Haider v May 14, 2010 10:33 AOGS - PS 9in x 6in b951-v19-fm FA REVIEWERS The Editors of Volume 19 (Planetary Science) would like to acknowledge the following referees who have helped to review the manuscript published in this volume: Hoe Teck Tan Frank Sohl C. Y. Robert Wu Miriam Rengel Hauke Hussmann Luke Moore Guillermo Manuel Mun˜oz Caro Ramo´n Luna B. L. Deekshatulu C. K. Shum K. I. Oyama Koji Matsumoto Alexander Kutepov Daniel Santos-Costa Alexandr Feigin Patrick Galopeau Yuriy Ivanov Tadashi Mukai Sachchida Nand Tripathi Greg Neumann Ozgur Karatekin Kosuke Heki Takeshi Kuroda Glenn Stark Alexander Medvedev Jan B. Nee Keran O’Brien Takanori Sasaki Naoki Terada Shinsuke Abe Shinobu Machida Michael Mendillo Tatsuaki Okada Martin Hilchenbach Juergen Oberst Philippe Baron Tony Gabriel Conor Nixon Gianni de Angelis Esa Kallio Geronimo Villanueva S. A. Haider Rafael Escribano Tai-Sone Yih Ricardo Vidal David L. Huestis D. Banerjee Dominique Delcourt Manabu Kato J.-A. Sauvaud Angela Ciaravella Donald Shemansky Hiromu Nakagawa Martin Hilchenbach Hiroaki Shiraishi Urs Mall vii May 14, 2010 10:33 AOGS - PS 9in x 6in b951-v19-fm FA viii Reviewers Richard Fallows Oleg Korablev MasayoshiKojima Christopher Jarchow Claude d’Uston Donald Malocha Frederick Partey Masahiro Hoshino Florencio Ballesteros Takeshi Imamura Ram K. Tripathi Alexander Medvedev Varun Sheel Christophe Risacher Gu¨nter Kargl Luisa Lara Murthy Gudipati Nikolay Ignatiev Herve Abgrall Miriam Rengel Brenton Lewis Yoshifumi Saito Francois Leblanc Stefano Orsini May 14, 2010 10:33 AOGS - PS 9in x 6in b951-v19-fm FA PREFACE The present volume set of Advances in Geosciences (ADGEO) contain papersfromtheBusanannualmeetingin2008andsomefromtheSingapore annualmeeting in 2009.As Editor-in-Chief,I mustapologizeto the AOGS members and authors for this delay. Since 2006 we have published 20 volumesintotal.ThispublicationprojecthasbeensupportedbytheAOGS Council,WorldScientific PublicationCompany(WSPC), the teamof hard working editors and the broad membership and participants of AOGS. As with the main purpose of the Society, ADGEO is meant to promote information exchange and to forge scientific cooperation in the area of Earth science and environmental study. As witnessed by the negotiation efforts at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009, all these issues have become more and more important and vital in the Asia-Pacific region. It is not a matter of exaggeration in saying that the solution to global warming, if there is one, has to come from the emerging economies and developing countries covered by AOGS. By design, ADGEO has its fundamental role to play. In practical terms, it is actually a difficult task because of many factors involved in deciding the quality of manuscripts, editorial and review processes, publication procedure,scientific impacts, readership,policy of the AOGS Council, and last but not least, marketing from the point of view of the publisher. Any small mishap in this long chain of interactive steps could lead to a major discontinuity. We have encountered such a situation with the publicationoftheBusanmanuscripts.Itisonlywiththecooperationofthe authors, the ADGEO editorial team, WSPC, and the AOGS Secretariat Office, that we are able to produce these volumes, albeit a long delay. With this lessonlearned,we hope to consolidatethe ADGEO management andeditorialsystemsothatitwouldbecomeanessentialpublicationinour understandingofEarthandspacescienceandinformationtoolbooksinthe battleagainstclimatechange.Finally,Iwouldliketotakethisopportunity to thank the Volume Editors-in-Chief who are the driving force in making ADGEO possible: A. Bhardwaj (Planetary Science), M. Duldig (Solar and Terrestrial Science), J.P. Gan (Ocean Science), J.H. Oh (Atmospheric ix May 14, 2010 10:33 AOGS - PS 9in x 6in b951-v19-fm FA x Preface Science), N.S. Park (Hydrological Science), K. Satake and C.H. Lo (Solid Earth). They have to work very hard to ensure both the quantity and quality of the published papers in ADGEO. Of equal importance, the supportfromWSPCisessentialanditsforesightinidentifyingtheacademic andsocialvaluesofEarthscienceandenvironmentalstudy tobe sustained and articulated by ADGEO is very much appreciated. Wing-Huen Ip Editor-in-Chief