Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. PIONEERS OF JAPANESE BIBLE TRANSLATION: The Application of the Dynamic Equivalent Method in Japan PPPIIIOOONNNEEEEEERRRSSS OOOFFF JJJAAAPPPAAANNNEEESSSEEE BBBIIIBBBLLLEEE TTTRRRAAANNNSSSLLLAAATTTIIIOOONNN::: TTThhheee AAAppppppllliiicccaaatttiiiooonnn ooofff ttthhheee DDDyyynnnaaammmiiiccc EEEqqquuuiiivvvaaallleeennnttt MMMeeettthhhoooddd iiinnn JJJaaapppaaannn A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master ofArts in Japanese at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Akira Doi 2007 ii ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to investigate the appropriateness of the term kami ( 神 ) as the translation of the term ‘God’ from the point-of-view of Dynamic Equivalent (DE) translation in Japan. The study argues that the translated term kami(神) in the Japanese Bible was adopted at first without sufficient investigation of its appropriateness but because of its penetrating character, it became the exclusive term to represent the monotheistic God. Discussion of the effect of the philosophy of Dynamic Equivalent translation in the history of Bible translation in Japan and the history of the changes of the Japanese notion of God is used to justify the validity of the above argument. As a procedure, two translation methods (DE and FE) seen in conventional Bible translations have been compared, supported by case studies where these methods are used. Next, to understand the mind of the Japanese who were the recipientsof the new concept of God, the history of Japanese Shinto is discussed. Finally, the lives of two Japanese assistants of Japanese Bible translation,Anjirō and Otokichi, are studied. The study concludes that the adoption of kami(神) was appropriate from the point-of-view of DE translation, and the Japanese assistants also applied the DE translation method unconsciously. A reassessment of their selection of the terms for God is possible if they are seen as examples of the DE translation method. iii DECLARATION I declare that the thesis has not previously been submitted for any degree and that acknowledgements have been made to the contributions of others where appropriate. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In what way can Japanese people understand the Bible more easily? This has been an on-going question for me. The key word to answer the question is the term kami, a Japanese translation of the term ‘God’. The term kami, like god, encodes a huge amount of linguistic, historical, cultural and theological information. In this thesis, an approach to the term ‘God’ from the viewpoint of the translation history of the Japanese Bible has been chosen. The research involved the historiesof China, England, the USAand medieval Rome as well as Japan. It also required a lot of actual translation work. I would often feel that challenging the project waslike scratching a tall concrete block with a finger nail. Without the sincere support of the staff of School of Language Studies in Massey University, I would have never completed this study. I am grateful to Dr. Penny Shino who mentored me with great patience for these four years, Professor Kiyoharu Ono (now retired) who kindly provided me the opportunity to study at Massey University, and also Dr. Fumio Kakubayashi who supervised me in 2003 and 2004, guiding me in historical matters, lending me his precious resources and introducing me to Dr. Kurozumi of Tokyo University. Regretfully Dr. Kakubayashi ended his earthly life on Christmas Eve, 2005, after a long illness, but his works will continue to help the successive scholarsin the field. I also wish to expressmy gratitude to Mrs. Toshiko Kakubayashi who kindly allowed me to use Dr. Kakubayashi’s collection and resourcesafter hisdeath. The timely advice of Mr. Hugh Kemp, former Dean of Bible College of New Zealand, Manawatu Branch, was especially helpful in the research of missionaries in China. The administrative staff in the School of Language v Studies provided me a comfortable environment for my work, for which I am thankful. Mr. Daniel Meyer kindly proof-read the drafts of the thesis. I appreciate his support in English writing. I wish to express my great thanks to The Sasakawa Fellowship Fund for Japanese Language Education for the financial support for thisthesis. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife, Kikuko Doi who devotedly supported and encouraged me in this long time of study and Mr. Ruisu Ikedaand my son, Takumi Doi, who helped me create the figuresof the thesis. November 2007 AkiraDoi vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ii DECLARATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LISTOF TABLES ix LISTOF FIGURES x AUTHOR’S NOTES xi ABBREVIATIONS xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 1. Purpose of Thesis 1 2. Scope of Thesis 2 3. Review of the Literature 3 4. Overview of Thesis 7 CHAPTER II METHODS OF TRANSLATION 15 1. Introductory Comments 15 2. Formal Equivalence (FE) and Dynamic Equivalence (DE) 15 3. FE & DE Reflected in the Japanese Version of the Bible 24 4. Suzuki’s MethodsonTranslation of ‘God’ 31 5. Syncretism / Penetration ModelsinTranslation of ‘God’ 34 6. Chapter Conclusion 39 CHAPTERIII JAPANESE BIBLETRANSLATIONS BEFORE 1888 41 1. IntroductoryComments 41 vii 2. Jesuits’ JapaneseTranslation in the 16th and 17th Centuries 42 3. Japanese BibleTranslation in the 19th Century 51 4. Adoption of theTermKami(神) 70 5. The Influence of the ChineseTranslation on the Japanese Bible 76 6. Difference betweenShen,Kamiand God 80 7. Chapter Conclusion 88 CHAPTER IV JAPANESE RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS BEFORE BIBLE TRANSLATION 90 1. IntroductoryComments 90 2. Hepburn’s Disappointment 91 3. Conceptsof God 92 4. Kojikiand the Bible 103 5. Chapter Conclusion 112 CHAPTERV REVIVAL OF SHINTO IN TOKUGAWAANDMEIJI ERAS 114 1. IntroductoryComments 114 2. Kokugaku (National Learning) 114 3. The Ise Shrines 129 4. Chapter Conclusion 136 CHAPTERVI JAPANESETRANSLATIONASSISTANTS 138 1. Anjirō (ca. 1511-1551) 138 2. Otokichi (1819 - 1867) 145 3. Comparison betweenAnjirō and Otokichi 157 4. Elimination ofDainichiorGokuraku 159 viii CHAPTERVII CONCLUSION 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY 168 ix LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1 BibleTermsRequiringAttention 25 Table 2 Japanese BibleTranslatorsin the 19th Century 53 Table 3 Chinese BibleTranslatorsin the 19th Century 72 Table 4 Translationsof theTerm ‘God’ 86