Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 2016 U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service ii Preface The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates. Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov. This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-25A, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 2008. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address: [email protected] John S. Duncan Director, Flight Standards Service iii iv Acknowledgments The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors: Mrs. Nancy A. Wright for providing imagery of a de Haviland DH-4 inaugural air mail flight (Chapter 1) The Raab Collection, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for images of the first pilot license (Chapter 1) Sandy Kenyon and Rod Magner (magicair.com) for photo of 1929 TravelAir 4000 (Chapter 1) Dr. Pat Veillette for information used on decision-making (Chapter 2) Adventure Seaplanes for photos of a ski and float training plane (Chapter 3) Jack Davis, Stearman Restorers Asociation, for photo of a 1941 PT-17 Army Air Corps trainer (Chapter 3) Michael J. Hoke, Abaris Training Resources, Inc., for images and information about composite aircraft (Chapter 3) Colin Cutler, Boldmethod, for images and content on the topic of ground effect (Chapter 5) Mark R. Korin, Alpha Systems, for images of AOA disaplys (Chapter 5) M. van Leeuwen (www.zap16.com) for image of Piaggio P-180 (Chapter 6) Greg Richter, Blue Mountain Avionics, for autopilot information and imagery (Chapter 6) Mountain High E&S Company for various images provided regarding oxygen systems (Chapter 7) Jeff Callahan, Aerox, for image of MSK-AS Silicone Mask without Microphone (Chapter 7) Nonin Medical, Inc. for image of Onyx pulse oximeter (Chapter 7) Pilotfriend.com for photo of a TKS Weeping Wing (Chapter 7) Chelton Flight Systems for image of FlightLogic (Chapter 8) Avidyne Corporation for image of the Entegra (Chapter 8) Teledyne Controls for image of an air data computer (Chapter 8) Watson Industries, Inc. (www.watson-gyro.com) for image of Attitude and Heading Reference system (Chapter 8) Engineering Arresting Systems Corporation (www.esco.zodiacaerospace.com) for EMAS imagery and EMASMAX technical digrams (Chapter 14) Caasey Rose and Jose Roggeveen (burningholesinthesky.wordpress.com) for flight checklist image (Chapter 14) Tim Murnahan for images of EMAS at Yeager Airport, Charleston, West Virginia, and EMAS arrested aircraft (Chapter 14) Cessna Aircraft Company, Columbia Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation, Eclipse Aviation Corporation, Garmin Ltd., The Boeing Company for images provided and used throughout the Handbook. Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety Foundation, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for their technical support and input. Disclaimer: Information in Chapter 14 pertaining to Runway Incursion Avoidance was created using FAA orders, documents, and Advisory Circulars that were current at the date of publication. Users should not assume that all references are current and should check often for reference updates. v vi Table of Contents Preface....................................................................iii Limitations: ...........................................................1-17 Private Pilot ..............................................................1-17 Acknowledgments ..................................................v Commercial Pilot ......................................................1-18 Airline Transport Pilot..............................................1-18 Table of Contents .................................................vii Selecting a Flight School ............................................1-18 How To Find a Reputable Flight Program ...............1-19 Chapter 1 How To Choose a Certificated Flight Introduction To Flying .........................................1-1 Instructor (CFI).........................................................1-19 Introduction ....................................................................1-1 The Student Pilot .........................................................1-20 History of Flight .............................................................1-2 Basic Requirements ..................................................1-20 History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 1-3 Medical Certification Requirements .....................1-20 Transcontinental Air Mail Route ................................1-4 Becoming a Pilot ..........................................................1-21 Federal Certification of Pilots and Mechanics ...........1-4 Knowledge and Skill Tests ..........................................1-21 The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 ..............................1-6 Knowledge Tests ......................................................1-21 Department of Transportation (DOT) ........................1-6 When To Take the Knowledge Test .....................1-22 ATC Automation ........................................................1-6 Practical Test ............................................................1-22 The Professional Air Traffic Controllers When To Take the Practical Test ..........................1-23 Organization (PATCO) Strike ....................................1-6 Who Administers the FAA Practical Tests? .........1-23 The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 .......................1-7 Role of the Certificated Flight Instructor .................1-23 The Role of the FAA ......................................................1-7 Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner ...................1-24 The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) ....................1-7 Chapter Summary .......................................................1-24 Primary Locations of the FAA ...................................1-8 Field Offices ...........................................................1-8 Chapter 2 Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) ................................1-9 Aeronautical Decision-Making ...........................2-1 FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) ................................1-9 Introduction ....................................................................2-1 Obtaining Assistance from the FAA ..........................1-9 History of ADM .............................................................2-2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) ...............1-9 Risk Management ..........................................................2-3 Handbooks ............................................................1-10 Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Single- Advisory Circulars (ACs) .....................................1-10 Pilot Resource Management ..........................................2-4 Flight Publications ................................................1-11 Hazard and Risk .............................................................2-4 Pilot and Aeronautical Information .........................1-12 Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes ............................2-5 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) ............................1-12 Risk .............................................................................2-6 Safety Program Airmen Notification System Assessing Risk ........................................................2-6 (SPANS) ...............................................................1-14 Mitigating Risk .......................................................2-8 Aircraft Classifications and Ultralight Vehicles ..........1-14 The PAVE Checklist .................................................2-8 Pilot Certifications .......................................................1-16 P = Pilot in Command (PIC) ..................................2-8 Privileges: .............................................................1-16 A = Aircraft ............................................................2-8 Limitations: ...........................................................1-17 V = EnVironment ...................................................2-9 Recreational Pilot .....................................................1-17 E = External Pressures ............................................2-9 Privileges: .............................................................1-17 Human Factors .............................................................2-10 vii Human Behavior ..........................................................2-11 Chapter 3 The Decision-Making Process .....................................2-12 Aircraft Construction ..........................................3-1 Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) ...........2-13 Introduction ....................................................................3-1 The 5 Ps Check ........................................................2-13 Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness .........3-2 The Plan ...............................................................2-14 A Note About Light Sport Aircraft ............................3-2 The Plane .............................................................2-14 Lift and Basic Aerodynamics .........................................3-2 The Pilot ...............................................................2-14 Major Components .........................................................3-3 The Passengers .....................................................2-14 Fuselage ......................................................................3-3 Wings .........................................................................3-3 The Programming ................................................2-15 Empennage .................................................................3-6 Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model....................2-15 Landing Gear ..............................................................3-7 PAVE Checklist: Identify Hazards and The Powerplant...........................................................3-7 Personal Minimums ..............................................2-15 Subcomponents ..............................................................3-8 CARE Checklist: Review Hazards and Types of Aircraft Construction ......................................3-8 Evaluate Risks ......................................................2-16 Truss Structure ...........................................................3-8 TEAM Checklist: Choose and Implement Semimonocoque .........................................................3-9 Risk Controls ........................................................2-16 Composite Construction .............................................3-9 The DECIDE Model .............................................2-18 History ....................................................................3-9 Detect (the Problem) .............................................2-20 Advantages of Composites ...................................3-10 Estimate (the Need To React) ...............................2-20 Disadvantages of Composites ...............................3-10 Choose (a Course of Action) ................................2-20 Fluid Spills on Composites ...................................3-11 Identify (Solutions) ...............................................2-20 Lightning Strike Protection ...................................3-11 Do (the Necessary Actions) ..................................2-20 The Future of Composites ....................................3-12 Evaluate (the Effect of the Action) ......................2-20 Instrumentation: Moving into the Future ....................3-12 Decision-Making in a Dynamic Environment ............2-21 Control Instruments .................................................3-13 Automatic Decision-Making ...................................2-21 Navigation Instruments ...........................................3-13 Operational Pitfalls ...............................................2-21 Global Positioning System (GPS) ................................3-13 Stress Management...................................................2-21 Chapter Summary ........................................................3-13 Use of Resources ......................................................2-21 Internal Resources ................................................2-23 Chapter 4 External Resources ...............................................2-23 Principles of Flight ..............................................4-1 Situational Awareness ..................................................2-24 Introduction ....................................................................4-1 Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness .....2-24 Structure of the Atmosphere ..........................................4-1 Workload Management ........................................2-24 Air is a Fluid ..............................................................4-2 Managing Risks ....................................................2-25 Viscosity .................................................................4-2 Automation ..................................................................2-25 Friction ....................................................................4-2 Results of the Study ..................................................2-27 Pressure ...................................................................4-3 Equipment Use .........................................................2-27 Atmospheric Pressure .................................................4-3 Autopilot Systems .................................................2-27 Pressure Altitude ........................................................4-4 Familiarity .............................................................2-27 Density Altitude .........................................................4-4 Respect for Onboard Systems ...............................2-29 Effect of Pressure on Density .................................4-4 Getting Beyond Rote Workmanship .....................2-29 Effect of Temperature on Density ..........................4-4 Understand the Platform ......................................2-29 Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............4-5 Managing Aircraft Automation ...............................2-29 Theories in the Production of Lift ..................................4-5 Information Management .....................................2-30 Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion ................................4-5 Enhanced Situational Awareness .............................2-30 Bernoulli’s Principle of Differential Pressure ............4-6 Automation Management .........................................2-31 Airfoil Design ................................................................4-6 Risk Management .....................................................2-31 Low Pressure Above ..................................................4-7 Chapter Summary .......................................................2-32 High Pressure Below ..................................................4-8 viii Pressure Distribution ..................................................4-8 Weight and Balance .....................................................5-40 Airfoil Behavior .........................................................4-8 Effect of Weight on Flight Performance ..................5-42 A Third Dimension ........................................................4-9 Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure .....................5-42 Chapter Summary ..........................................................4-9 Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability ....5-42 Effect of Load Distribution ......................................5-43 Chapter 5 High Speed Flight ........................................................5-44 Aerodynamics of Flight .......................................5-1 Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow ...........................5-44 Forces Acting on the Aircraft ........................................5-1 Speed Ranges ...........................................................5-44 Thrust .........................................................................5-2 Mach Number Versus Airspeed ...............................5-45 Lift ..............................................................................5-3 Boundary Layer ........................................................5-46 Lift/Drag Ratio ........................................................5-5 Laminar Boundary Layer Flow ............................5-46 Drag ............................................................................5-6 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow ..........................5-46 Parasite Drag ...........................................................5-6 Boundary Layer Separation ..................................5-46 Induced Drag ..........................................................5-7 Shock Waves ............................................................5-46 Weight ........................................................................5-8 Sweepback ................................................................5-48 Wingtip Vortices ............................................................5-8 Mach Buffet Boundaries ..........................................5-49 Formation of Vortices ................................................5-8 High Speed Flight Controls ......................................5-49 Avoiding Wake Turbulence .......................................5-9 Chapter Summary ........................................................5-51 Ground Effect ...............................................................5-11 Axes of an Aircraft .......................................................5-12 Chapter 6 Moment and Moment Arm ..........................................5-13 Flight Controls .....................................................6-1 Aircraft Design Characteristics ...................................5-14 Introduction ....................................................................6-1 Stability ....................................................................5-14 Flight Control Systems .................................................6-2 Static Stability .......................................................5-14 Flight Controls ............................................................6-2 Dynamic Stability .................................................5-14 Primary Flight Controls ..............................................6-2 Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) ..........................5-15 Elevator ...................................................................6-5 Lateral Stability (Rolling) .....................................5-17 T-Tail ......................................................................6-6 Directional Stability (Yawing) .............................5-19 Stabilator .................................................................6-7 Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) ..............5-20 Canard .....................................................................6-7 Spiral Instability .......................................................5-20 Rudder .....................................................................6-8 Effect of Wing Planform .............................................5-20 V-Tail ......................................................................6-8 Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers ...................5-22 Secondary Flight Controls ..........................................6-8 Forces in Turns .........................................................5-22 Flaps ........................................................................6-8 Forces in Climbs .......................................................5-23 Leading Edge Devices ............................................6-9 Forces in Descents ....................................................5-24 Spoilers .................................................................6-10 Stalls ............................................................................5-25 Trim Tabs ..............................................................6-10 Angle of Attack Indicators ...........................................5-26 Balance Tabs .........................................................6-11 Basic Propeller Principles ............................................5-28 Servo Tabs ............................................................6-11 Torque and P-Factor .................................................5-30 Antiservo Tabs ......................................................6-11 Torque Reaction .......................................................5-31 Ground Adjustable Tabs .......................................6-11 Corkscrew Effect ......................................................5-31 Adjustable Stabilizer .............................................6-12 Gyroscopic Action ....................................................5-31 Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor) ..............................5-32 Autopilot ......................................................................6-12 Load Factors .................................................................5-33 Chapter Summary ........................................................6-12 Load Factors in Aircraft Design ...............................5-33 Load Factors in Steep Turns .....................................5-34 Chapter 7 Load Factors and Stalling Speeds ............................5-34 Aircraft Systems ..................................................7-1 Introduction ....................................................................7-1 Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers .........................5-36 Powerplant .....................................................................7-1 Vg Diagram ..............................................................5-37 Reciprocating Engines ................................................7-2 Rate of Turn..............................................................5-38 Propeller .....................................................................7-4 Radius of Turn ..........................................................5-39 ix