PHYSICS P – II ART T C XII EXTBOOK FOR LASS 2021–22 2021–22 PHYSICS P – II ART T C XII EXTBOOK FOR LASS 2021–22 ISBN 81-7450-631-4 (Part I) ISBN 81-7450-671-3 (Part II) FFFFFiiiiirrrrrsssssttttt EEEEEdddddiiiiitttttiiiiiooooonnnnn March 2007 Chaitra 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, RRRRReeeeeppppprrrrriiiiinnnnnttttteeeeeddddd photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the December 2007 Agrahayana 1929 publisher. December 2008 Pausha 1930 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s December 2009 Pausha 1931 consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is January 2011 Pausha 1932 published. 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November 2013 Kartika 1935 December 2014 Pausha 1936 December 2015 Agrahayana 1937 February 2017 Magha 1938 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION December 2017 Pausha 1939 DIVISION, NCERT February 2018 Magha 1939 NCERT Campus February 2019 Magha 1940 Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 October 2019 Ashwina 1941 January 2021 Pausha 1942 108, 100 Feet Road Hosdakere Halli Extension Banashankari III Stage PD 64T RSP Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740 Navjivan Trust Building ©©©©© NNNNNaaaaatttttiiiiiooooonnnnnaaaaalllll CCCCCooooouuuuunnnnnccccciiiiilllll ooooofffff EEEEEddddduuuuucccccaaaaatttttiiiiiooooonnnnnaaaaalllll P.O.Navjivan Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446 RRRRReeeeessssseeeeeaaaaarrrrrccccchhhhh aaaaannnnnddddd TTTTTrrrrraaaaaiiiiinnnnniiiiinnnnnggggg,,,,, 22222000000000077777 CWC Campus Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869 `....... Publication Team Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput Division Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer Chief Business : Vipin Dewan Manager (In charge) Assistant Editor : R. N. Bhardwaj Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT watermark Production Assistant : ............ Published at the Publication Division by the Secretary, National Council of Educational CCCCCooooovvvvveeeeerrrrr,,,,, LLLLLaaaaayyyyyooooouuuuuttttt aaaaannnnnddddd IIIIIlllllllllluuuuussssstttttrrrrraaaaatttttiiiiiooooonnnnnsssss Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Shweta Rao Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and printed at ... ............................................................. .............................................................. 2021–22 F OREWORD The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor A.W. Joshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. Director New Delhi National Council of Educational 20 November 2006 Research and Training 2021–22 2021–22 P REFACE It gives me pleasure to place this book in the hands of the students, teachers and the public at large (whose role cannot be overlooked). It is a natural sequel to the Class XI textbook which was brought out in 2006. This book is also a trimmed version of the textbooks which existed so far. The chapter on thermal and chemical effects of current has been cut out. This topic has also been dropped from the CBSE syllabus. Similarly, the chapter on communications has been substantially curtailed. It has been rewritten in an easily comprehensible form. Although most other chapters have been based on the earlier versions, several parts and sections in them have been rewritten. The Development Team has been guided by the feedback received from innumerable teachers across the country. In producing these books, Class XI as well as Class XII, there has been a basic change of emphasis. Both the books present physics to students without assuming that they would pursue this subject beyond the higher secondary level. This new view has been prompted by the various observations and suggestions made in the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005. Similarly, in today’s educational scenario where students can opt for various combinations of subjects, we cannot assume that a physics student is also studying mathematics. Therefore, physics has to be presented, so to say, in a stand-alone form. As in Class XI textbook, some interesting box items have been inserted in many chapters. They are not meant for teaching or examinations. Their purpose is to catch the attention of the reader, to show some applications in daily life or in other areas of science and technology, to suggest a simple experiment, to show connection of concepts in different areas of physics, and in general, to break the monotony and enliven the book. Features like Summary, Points to Ponder, Exercises and Additional Exercises at the end of each chapter, and Examples have been retained. Several concept-based Exercises have been transferred from end-of-chapter Exercises to Examples with Solutions in the text. It is hoped that this will make the concepts discussed in the chapter more comprehensible. Several new examples and exercises have been added. Students wishing to pursue physics further would find Points to Ponder and Additional Exercises very useful and thoughtful. To provide resources beyond the textbook and to encourage eLearning, each chapter has been provided with some relevant website addresses under the title ePhysics. These sites provide additional materials on specific topics and also provide learners the opportunites for interactive demonstrations/ experiments. The intricate concepts of physics must be understood, comprehended and appreciated. Students must learn to ask questions like ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how do we know it’. They will find almost always that the question ‘why’ has no answer within the domain of physics and science in general. But that itself is a learning experience, is it not? On the other hand, the question ‘how’ has been reasonably well answered by physicists in the case of most natural phenomena. In fact, with the understanding of how things happen, it has been possible to make use of many phenomena to create technological applications for the use of humans. 2021–22 For example, consider statements in a book, like ‘A negatively charged electron is attracted by the positively charged plate’, or ‘In this experiment, light (or electron) behaves like a wave’. You will realise that it is not possible to answer ‘why’. This question belongs to the domain of philosophy or metaphysics. But we can answer ‘how’, we can find the force acting, we can find the wavelength of the photon (or electron), we can determine how things behave under different conditions, and we can develop instruments which will use these phenomena to our advantage. It has been a pleasure to work for these books at the higher secondary level, along with a team of members. The Textbook Development Team, the Review Team and Editing Teams involved college and university teachers, teachers from Indian Institutes of Technology, scientists from national institutes and laboratories, as well as higher secondary teachers. The feedback and critical look provided by higher secondary teachers in the various teams are highly laudable. Most box items were generated by members of one or the other team, but three of them were generated by friends and well-wishers not part of any team. We are thankful to Dr P.N. Sen of Pune, Professor Roopmanjari Ghosh of Delhi and Dr Rajesh B Khaparde of Mumbai for allowing us to use their box items, respectively in Chapters 3, 4 (Part I) and 9 (Part II). We are very thankful to the members of the Review and Editing Workshops to discuss and refine the first draft of the textbook. We also express our gratitude to Prof. Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT, for entrusting us with the task of presenting this textbook as a part of the national effort for improving science education. I also thank Prof. G. Ravindra, Joint Director, NCERT, for his help from time-to-time. Prof. Hukum Singh, Head, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT, was always willing to help us in our endeavour in every possible way. We welcome suggestions and comments from our valued users, especially students and teachers. We wish our young readers a happy journey into the exciting realm of physics. A. W. JOSHI Chief Advisor Textbook Development Committee viii 2021–22 T D C EXTBOOK EVELOPMENT OMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University Campus, Pune CHIEF ADVISOR A.W. Joshi, Honorary Visiting Scientist, National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA), Pune University Campus, Pune (Formerly Professor at Department of Physics, University of Pune) MEMBERS A.K. Ghatak, Emeritus Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi Alika Khare, Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati Anjali Kshirsagar, Reader, Department of Physics, University of Pune, Pune Anuradha Mathur, PGT , Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi Atul Mody, Lecturer (S.G.), VES College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, New Delhi Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education (TIFR), Mumbai N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi S. Rai Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi S.K. Upadhyay, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Muzaffar Nagar S.N. Prabhakara, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Mysore V.H. Raybagkar, Reader, Nowrosjee Wadia College, Pune Vishwajeet Kulkarni, Teacher (Grade I), Higher Secondary Section, Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule College, Margao, Goa MEMBER-COORDINATOR V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi 2021–22 2021–22