PHYSICAL SCIENCES PHYSICAL SCIENCES Notable Research and Discoveries KYLE KIRKLAND, PH.D. PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Notable Research and Discoveries Copyright © 2010 by Kyle Kirkland, Ph.D. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kirkland, Kyle. Physical sciences : notable research and discoveries / Kyle Kirkland. p. cm. — (Frontiers of science) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8160-7444-0 ISBN 978-1-4381-3121-4 (e-book) 1. Physics. I. Title. QC21.3.K536 2010 530—dc22 2009027496 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can fi nd Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfi le.com Excerpts included herewith have been reprinted by permission of the copyright holders; the author has made every eff ort to contact copyright holders. Th e publishers will be glad to rectify, in future editions, any errors or omissions brought to their notice. Text design by Kerry Casey Composition by Mary Susan Ryan-Flynn Illustrations by Melissa Ericksen and Facts On File Photo research by Tobi Zausner, Ph.D. Cover printed by Bang Printing, Inc., Brainerd, Minn. Book printed and bound by Bang Printing, Inc., Brainerd, Minn. Date printed: June 2010 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Th is book is printed on acid-free paper. COnTenTS Preface ix Acknowledgments xiii Introduction xv 1 Nuclear Fusion: Power from the Atom 1 Introduction 2 Einstein’s Famous Equation: E = mc2 6 The Power of Fusion 9 Inertial Confinement—Ignition with Lasers 10 National Ignition Facility 12 Magnetic Confinement—A Bottle with No Walls 15 Joint European Torus 18 ITER Fusion 20 Alternative Approaches to Fusion—Cold Fusion 21 “Bubble Fusion” 24 Conclusion 26 Chronology 28 Further Resources 30 2 Particle Accelerators 34 Introduction 35 Accelerating a Particle to Nearly the Speed of Light 40 Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory 43 Accelerators in Medicine 45 The Nature of Matter 47 The Energy of Matter-Antimatter Reactions 50 Standard Model of Particles and Interactions 52 Re-creating the Early Universe 54 Large Hadron Collider 55 Conclusion 57 Chronology 59 Further Resources 62 3 Neutrinos—Elusive Particles and the Mysteries of Astrophysics 65 Introduction 67 Catching an Elusive Particle 70 Čerenkov Radiation 72 Solar Neutrinos 73 Neutrino Oscillation—Changing from One Type to Another 74 Determining the Mass 77 Neutrino Astronomy 80 Supernova—An Exploding Star 82 Conclusion 84 Chronology 87 Further Resources 88 4 Superconductors—Perfect Electrical Conductors 91 Introduction 92 BCS Theory—A Partial Explanation 96 Measuring the Brain’s Magnetic Field 98 Beyond BCS Theory— High-Temperature Superconductors 100 Superconducting Ceramic Materials 102 Constructing a New Theory 104 Searching for New Materials 107 Oak Ridge National Laboratory 109 Conclusion 110 Chronology 112 Further Resources 113 5 Chaos Theory and the Butterfly Effect 116 Introduction 117 Finding Order in Nonlinear Dynamics 121 Chaos in the Brain 123 Attractors 124 Turbulence, Jet Streams, and Weather 128 Chaos and Quantum Mechanics 130 Jet Streams 131 Controlling Chaos 134 Conclusion 136 Chronology 137 Further Resources 139 6 String Theory and the Foundations of Physics 141 Introduction 142 Vibrating Strings 145 Planck Length 146 Added Dimensions 150 Superstrings and M-Theory 152 Institute for Advanced Study 153 Experimental Tests 155 Searching for the Truth 157 The Universe with Strings 159 Conclusion 162 Chronology 163 Further Resources 165 Final Thoughts 168 Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements 172 Appendix B: The Chemical Elements 173 Glossary 174 Further Resources 178 Index 181 ix pReFaCe Discovering what lies behind a hill or beyond a neighborhood can be as simple as taking a short walk. But curiosity and the urge to make new dis- coveries usually require people to undertake journeys much more adven- turesome than a short walk, and scientists oft en study realms far removed from everyday observation—sometimes even beyond the present means of travel or vision. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’s (1473–1543) heliocentric (Sun-centered) model of the solar system, published in 1543, ushered in the modern age of astronomy more than 400 years before the fi rst rocket escaped Earth’s gravity. Scientists today probe the tiny domain of atoms, pilot submersibles into marine trenches far beneath the waves, and analyze processes occurring deep within stars. Many of the newest areas of scientifi c research involve objects or places that are not easily accessible, if at all. Th ese objects may be trillions of miles away, such as the newly discovered planetary systems, or they may be as close as inside a person’s head; the brain, a delicate organ encased and pro- tected by the skull, has frustrated many of the best eff orts of biologists until recently. Th e subject of interest may not be at a vast distance or concealed by a protective covering, but instead it may be removed in terms of time. For example, people need to learn about the evolution of Earth’s weather and climate in order to understand the changes taking place today, yet no one can revisit the past. Frontiers of Science is an eight-volume set that explores topics at the forefront of research in the following sciences: • biological sciences • chemistry ix