PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY LABORATORY MANUAL KAREN A. LEMKE University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point MICHAEL E. RITTER University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point N. C. HEYWOOD University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY LABORATORY MANUAL Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QPD/QPD 0 9 8 7 ISBN 978–0–07–287364–1 MHID 0–07–287364–7 Publisher: Thomas Timp Executive Editor: Margaret J. Kemp Senior Developmental Editor: Joan M. Weber Senior Marketing Manager: Lisa Nicks Project Manager: Joyce Watters Senior Production Supervisor: Kara Kudronowicz Lead Media Project Manager: Judi David Senior Designer: David W. Hash (USE) Cover Image: ©Eyewire: Seasons EP083/GETTY IMAGES (RF) Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C. Leland Photo Research: Jo Hebert Compositor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC Typeface: 10/12 Times Printer: Quebecor World Dubuque, IA www.mhhe.com TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface v About the Authors vii EXERCISE 1. Earth-Sun Geometry and Insolation 1 EXERCISE 2. Radiation and Energy Balance at the Earth’s Surface 1 1 EXERCISE 3. Atmospheric Temperature 1 9 EXERCISE 4. Atmospheric Pressure, Circulation, and Wind 3 1 EXERCISE 5. Water in the Atmosphere 41 EXERCISE 6. Lapse Rates, Adiabatic Processes, and Cloud Development 49 EXERCISE 7. Midlatitude Weather and Weather Map Interpretation 5 9 EXERCISE 8. Climate Classifi cation and Regional Climates 71 EXERCISE 9. Soil Moisture Budgets 93 EXERCISE 10. Analysis of Soil Moisture Properties 111 EXERCISE 11. Climate, Net Primary Production, and Decomposition 1 25 EXERCISE 12. Vegetation Form and Range 1 41 EXERCISE 13. Bioclimatic Transects 149 EXERCISE 14. Coincident Climates, Vegetation, and Soils 1 63 EXERCISE 15. Hawai’i Rainforest Regeneration 175 EXERCISE 16. Introduction to Topographic Maps 185 EXERCISE 17. Igneous Landforms 205 EXERCISE 18. Drainage Basin Analysis 221 EXERCISE 19. F luvial Landforms 245 EXERCISE 20. Glacial Landforms 255 EXERCISE 21. Coastal Landforms 271 APPENDIX A. Units of Measure and Conversions 287 APPENDIX B. Drawing Isolines 290 APPENDIX C. Constructing Profi les 292 APPENDIX D. Using Pocket Stereoscopes 294 APPENDIX E. Exercise Maps and Photos 297 APPENDIX F. Thematic World Maps 324 Index 329 iii PREFACE W e wrote this laboratory manual because most currently period, and if not all parts are completed some of the available laboratory manuals do not provide equal coverage learning objectives may not be accomplished. Thus, the of the four spheres of the environment—the atmosphere, learning objectives address what students should be able to biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. They focus do if they complete the entire exercise. We do not always primarily on the atmosphere and lithosphere, so we’ve do all the parts of each exercise each semester, and we written a laboratory manual that we feel provides more let our students know which learning objectives they are balanced coverage. There are eight exercises that address responsible for. topics related to the atmosphere, seven exercises that address Each exercise contains an introduction that addresses topics related to the biosphere (including soils), and six topics specifi cally covered in the exercise activities. The exercises that address topics related to the lithosphere, for introduction is not meant to replace a full treatment of a total of 21 exercises. Of these 21 exercises, fi ve address the topic like that found in a textbook; however, since topics related to the hydrosphere and overlap with topics in not all textbooks contain equal coverage of the topics in the other three spheres. the laboratory manual, we included enough detail in the M ost laboratory manuals do not require as much critical introduction to ensure that students have enough background thinking as we wanted our students to engage in. Although in the material to complete the exercise. Information on topics many of these manuals ask students to do things, if students not specifi cally addressed in the exercise is not included in are not required to follow up their activities with thoughtful the introduction. The length of the exercise introductions questions, what they’ve done may not be meaningful or varies depending on the degree to which the topic is usually memorable. Active learning doesn’t just mean “doing covered in a typical textbook. For example, most textbooks things”; it includes actively thinking about what we’re doing provide ample coverage of adiabatic lapse rates, and thus or what we’ve done, and what the results of our activities the introduction to this exercise is relatively brief. Not all show us. Thus, we’ve tried to provide more thought- typical textbooks cover soil water budgets, and as a result, provoking questions and activities, and we’ve tried to follow the introduction to this exercise is lengthier. up on activities by asking questions that require students to At the end of the introduction, there is a list of important go back and look at what they’ve done and think about what terms, phrases, and concepts. These include all the bold-faced it means. items defi ned in the introduction. At a minimum, students Finally, we wanted to ensure that our students receive a should be familiar with these phrases and concepts, knowing scientifi cally rigorous experience in physical geography. their defi nition, why they’re important, and when and how to use this information for solving geographical problems. FEATURES TEACHING AND LEARNING SUPPLEMENTS A ll exercises were written independently—it is not necessary to do exercise 1 before doing exercise 2. As a result, these exercises can be done in the order most appropriate for your M cGraw-Hill offers various tools and technology products to class. This manual was written independent of any specifi c support Physical Geography Laboratory Manual. Students text, and should work with most of the currently available can order supplemental study materials by contacting their textbooks on physical geography. local bookstore or by calling 800-262-4729. Instructors Each exercise contains a brief statement regarding the can obtain teaching aids by calling the Customer Service purpose of the exercise. This is followed by a list of specifi c Department at 800-338-3987, visiting the McGraw-Hill learning objectives. These learning objectives are testable website at w ww.mhhe.com, or by contacting their local items that will allow instructors to objectively assess what McGraw-Hill sales representative. the students have learned. The questions and activities that A password-protected website can be found at w ww. follow help students achieve the stated learning objectives. mhhe.com/lemke1e. This helpful resource includes an Some exercises are divided into more than one part to allow Instructor’s Manual and an extensive array of teaching and fl exibility in what topics are covered during a laboratory learning tools. Visit this text-specifi c website today! v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank their families for their T he authors wish to express special thanks to McGraw- support over the years as we’ve worked on this laboratory Hill for editorial support through Marge Kemp and Joan manual. We also thank our colleagues at the University of Weber; the marketing expertise of Lisa Nicks; and the Wisconsin—Stevens Point for help and support, as well as production team led by Joyce Watters, David Hash, John reviewers who provided useful comments and suggestions. Leland, Kara Kudronowicz, and Sandy Schnee. Reviewers who provided many valuable suggestions include And last, we would like to thank our students, because without them, we never would have written this. David M. Cairns, Texas A&M University Christopher H. Exline, University of Nevada—Reno Karen A. Lemke Doug Goodin, Kansas State University Michael E. Ritter Linda Lea Jones, Texas Tech University N. C. Heywood Hsiang-te Kung, University of Memphis Miles R. Roberts, C alifornia State University—Sacramento Robert Rohli, L ouisiana State University Dean Wilder, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse vi ABOUT THE AUTHORS Karen A. Lemke Karen A. Lemke is a professor of geography and geology at the University of Wisconsin— Stevens Point (UWSP). She received her bachelor’s degree in 1981 at Bucknell University with majors in geography and German. She received her Ph.D. in 1988 in geography from the University of Iowa. She currently teaches introductory physical geography, geomorphology, glacial geology, and applied statistics in geography. In 1997 she won a teaching excellence award from UWSP. Her research interests are in fl uvial geomorphology and the scholarship of teaching and learning. Michael E. Ritter M ichael E. Ritter received his under- graduate degree in geography from Western Illinois University. He went on to receive a master’s degree and Ph.D. in geography from Indiana University. Michael is a professor of geography in the Geography & Geology Department at the University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point. His primary teaching responsibilities include physical geography and climatology. Michael wrote the fi rst book about using the Internet for earth science education and research, a book titled Earth Online. He has also written one of the fi rst interactive online textbooks in physical geography, titled The Physical Environment. Michael has served as a media author, contributor, and consultant for various publishers. His research interests focus on the use of interactive multimedia learning technologies in geoscience. N.C. Heywood A fter childhood in the northeastern United States, international experience as a U.S. Navy navigator, and a cartography internship with the National Geographic Society, N.C. Heywood completed B.A. (SUNY—Plattsburgh, 1982), M.A. (Georgia, 1984), and Ph.D. (Colorado, 1989) degrees—all in geography. After joining the Geography & Geology faculty at the University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point in 1989, N.C. continues as a physical geographer specializing in environmental hazards, biogeography, fi eld methods, and career development. N.C. received a teaching excellence award in 1998 and is currently working on research assisting the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Forestry Division, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, and the U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service. vii EXERCISE 1 EARTH-SUN GEOMETRY AND INSOLATION PURPOSE 1. Sun angle —the angle a beam of light makes with the surface of the earth. Low latitudes receive more The purpose of this exercise is to learn relationships insolation than high latitudes because sun angles are between the earth and the sun, and to examine greater in the tropics. how spatial and temporal variations in sunlight 2. Day length period —the longer the sun remains above affect temperature and energy patterns on the the horizon, the more total insolation any given location will receive. earth’s surface. 3. Water vapor content and cloud coverage of the atmosphere—water, regardless of its state (liquid, solid, LEARNING OBJECTIVES or gas), absorbs and refl ects solar radiation. Therefore, By the end of this exercise you should be able to less radiation is received at the earth’s surface on humid or cloudy days than on dry or clear days. • calculate the noon sun angle of a place during the solstices and equinoxes; 4. Atmospheric path length or thickness—the amount of atmosphere through which the sun’s rays pass before • explain how sun angle and insolation intensity changes striking the earth’s surface. High mountains receive with latitude and season; more solar radiation than lower elevations because the • explain how day length changes with latitude and atmosphere is thinner at high elevations. Likewise, the season; and solar beam must traverse through more atmosphere when • explain how sun angle, insolation intensity, and day it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead. The length affect temperature. greater the path length, the greater the opportunity for absorption or refl ection and the lower the insolation. T his exercise examines the fi rst two factors, sun angle and day length period. INTRODUCTION Earth-Sun Geometry and Sun Angle The earth’s axis is tilted 23.5° away from perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun. The tilt of the The sun angle is the angle that a beam of light makes with earth’s axis produces seasonal changes in the angle at which respect to the earth’s surface. In other words, it is how high the sun’s rays strike any given location on the earth, in the the sun appears above the horizon. The latitude of a place, the length of day, and in the amount of energy reaching any time of year, and the time of day largely determine the sun given location ( Figure 1.1 ). angle. The sun angle increases during the morning reaching T he amount of solar radiation reaching the outside of a peak at noon and then decreases into the afternoon. The the earth’s atmosphere remains fairly constant. Averaging noon sun angle (S), is the angle of the sun above the horizon the effects of the earth’s elliptical orbit around the sun, the at noon. Barring the infl uence of clouds and other factors that earth receives approximately 1367.7 watts per square meter would deplete the incoming light, the most intense radiation (1367.7 W/m 2 ), or 2 calories per square centimeter per occurs at noon when the sun is highest in the sky. minute (2 cal/cm2 / min) on a plane-oriented perpendicular to The z enith angle (Z) is the angle formed between a line the sun at the outer edge of the atmosphere, a value known perpendicular to the earth’s surface and the position of the as the s olar constant . sun in the sky (F igure 1.2) . If the sun is on the horizon at T he solar constant represents the maximum energy noon, the noon sun angle (S) is 0° and the zenith angle (Z) available to the earth-atmosphere system. However, radiation is 90°; if the sun is directly overhead at noon, the noon sun is unequally distributed across the face of the earth and is angle (S) is 90° and the zenith angle (Z) is 0°. The zenith reduced as it travels through the atmosphere. Several factors angle for a selected location can be determined by counting determine the total amount of incoming solar radiation, or the degrees of latitude that separate the selected location insolation , that strikes the earth’s surface: from the declination of the sun. 1 TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IN SUN ANNUAL CHANGES IN THE NOON FIGURE 1.1 FIGURE 1.2 ANGLE AND DAYLIGHT SUN ANGLE FOR 50°N LATITUDE December Solstice Summer solstice 6 months darkness Circle of Illumination at North Pole 0 hours tangent sun ray Zenith angle 66.5°N Arctic Circle 10.3 hours Equinoxes 63.5° 23.5°N0 ° TErqouTpraicot opoirfc Cofa Cncaeprricorn 1132. 7h houorusrs perspuenn draicyular Winter solstice 23.5°S A ntarctic Circ2le4 hours 40° tangent sun ray 66.5°S 6 months daylight at South Pole 16.5° Horizon March / September Equinox 66.5°N tangent sun ray year. For example, at the equator (latitude = 0°) the noon 12 hours ircle sun angle is 90° on the M arch and September equinoxes. Outside these latitudes (23.5°N to 23.5°S), the sun is never directly overhead. The noon sun angle, S, always equals 23.5°N Tropic of Cancer 12 hours 90° – Z. Thus, there are four steps for calculating the noon Equator 12 hours perpendicular sun angle for any selected location (T able 1.1 ): 0° sun ray Tropic of Capricorn 12 hours 1. Determine the latitude of the selected location. 23.5°S 2. Determine the declination of the sun, which is determined by the date. 66.5°SA ntarctic Circle 12 hours tangent sun ray 3. Calculate the zenith angle, Z. 4. Calculate the noon sun angle, S. Circle of Illumination June Solstice EXAMPLES OF COMPUTING THE TABLE 1.1 NOON SUN ANGLE 6 months daylight Circle of Illumination at North Pole 1. Noon sun angle for 40°N latitude on June 21: 66.5°N tangent sun ray 24 hours Declination = 23.5°N rctic Circle Z = 40°N − 23.5°N = 16.5° 23.05°° NE quTarotopric of Cancer 13.7 hours perpendicular S Fth o=er 9stoh0iu°s t −he x1o6af.m 5t°hp e=le o7, 3ba.ts5 en°r ovoenr. the sun would appear to 23.5°S Tropic of Capricorn 12 hours sun ray 2. Noon sun angle for 40° N latitude on December 22: 10.3 hours D Z e=c 4lin0a°tNio +n 2=3 2.53°.S5 °=S 63.5° 66.5°SA ntarctic Circle tangent sun ray S In =t h9i0s °e −x a6m3.p5l°e =, a2t6 .n5o°o n the sun would appear to 6 months darkness 0 hours the south of the observer. at South Pole 3. Noon sun angle for 5°S latitude on June 21: The declination of the sun is the latitude where the sun Declination = 23.5°N on any day is directly overhead (S = 90°) at noon; thus, the Z = 5°S + 23.5°N = 28.5° declination is determined by the date. The declination of the S = 90° − 28.5° = 61.5° sun varies from 23.5°N on the June solstice to 23.5°S on In this example, the sun would appear to the north the December solstice. Between these latitudes (23.5°N to of the observer because the declination is located 23.5°S), the sun passes directly overhead twice during the to the north of the observer. 2