Ecological Studies Analysis and Synthesis Edited by J. Jacobs, Munchen' O. L. Lange, Wurzburg J. S. Olson, Oak Ridge· W. Wieser, Innsbruck Volume 4 Physical Aspects of Soil Water and Salts in Ecosystems Edited by A. Hadas, D. Swartzendruber, P. E. Rijtema, M. Fuchs and B. Yaron With 221 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg· New York 1973 ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65525-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65523-4 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-65523-4 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned specifically those of translation~ reprinting. re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to the publisher, the amount of the fee to be determined by agreement with the publisher. © by Springer·Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1973. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 72-95753 Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1973 Physical Aspects of Soil Water and Salts in Ecosystems Edited by A. Hadas, D. Swartzendruber, P. E. Rijtema, M. Fuchs and B. Yaron With 221 Figures Springer-Verlag New York· Heidelberg· Berlin 1973 ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65525-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65523-4 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-65523-4 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved. whether the whole or part of the material is concerned specifically those of translation, reprinting~ fe-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. The use of registered names. trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Under § S4 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to the publisher, the amount of the fee to be determined by agreement with the publisher. © by Springer. Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1973. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 72·95753 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1973 Preface The papers collected in this book were given and discussed at the symposium on "Soil water physics and technology", which was held in Rehovot, Israel, from August 19th-September 4th, 1971. It was sponsored by the International Society of Soil Science (1.S.S.S.) through its Commissions I (soil physics) and VI (soil technology), and organized by the Israeli Soil Science Society. Thanks are due to the Editors for having assembled contributions and discussion remarks into a well-rounded, coherent book. The subjects covered in this book are the theoretical and practical aspects of the following topics: water movement in soils, soil-water interactions, evaporation from soil and plants, water requirements of crops, ion activity and migration in soils, soilwater management and salinity. In as much as these contributions were not solicited, they represent ideas and subjects considered important by the authors and debators. In science, one often finds a gap between basic research and practical application. If reading this book creates a feeling of an apparent lack of balance between theory and practice, this represents the state of our science today, and the thoughtful reader can and will recognize that much remains to be done. W. R. GARDNER T.]. MAR5HAL President, Commission I President, Commission VI 1.5.5.5. 1.5.S.5. Foreword Soil physicists have come a long way since some 120 years ago when DARCY performed his little experiment and thus laid the foundation for the modem study of water movement in soils. The history of soil technology dates back many centuries before that. In fact, it started when man realized the necessity of plowing and when he discovered what used to be the art of irrigation. Soil physics as we know it today, on the other hand, is a relatively new science. It is an applied science employing the tools, techniques and principles developed in the sciences of physics, chemistry, physical chemistry and mathe matics, and adding some of its own in the process. It has reached a high level of sophistication in solving water flow problems under more and more demanding conditions, using numerical and other techniques. Soil scientists have studied in minute detail the structure of soil water adjacent to soil surfaces and its effect on soil behavior and gained an understanding of the interaction of water, soil and salts; they have of late been attempting to develop comprehensive models to simulate the behavior of the complex soil-plant-atmosphere continuum. So far, however, we have just been scratching the surface, for the ultimate aim of our effort is the use of its fruits by the people we seek to serve. I am sure each one of the authors at one time or another has wondered and pondered on what he has contributed not only to the progress of science but also to the well-being of his community, especially in this day and age, when science is condemned by many as the source of all evil. Soil technology is supposedly the application of soil physics to practical problems. But how much of the basic understanding we develop with so much effort is actually put to use? Too little. How much of our technological research is erected on its own empirical basis rather than on the foundation of basic principles? Too much. Does the physicist do enough to apply his findings, and does the technologist do enough to gain a more basic understanding? There is a lack of everyday communication between the soil physicist and the soil technologist, and there is too wide a gap between their work. This gap must be filled if we are to make a significant contribution to the understanding of the ecological system. The enclosed articles were presented in the Land of the Bible and I cannot resist the temptation of concluding this foreword by quoting from Genesis Chapter 2, Verse 15: uThe Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to till it and to care for it". If man had to do this for the land in the Garden of Eden, so much the more must he do it for the more vulnerable land outside. Would it be too pretentious to say that in the modem world the soil scientist is given the task to till it and to care for it"? He has to find the best ways and means of tilling the U land (irrigation included) but, more important, he has to do his best to protect its productive potential, its integrity, and not least, produce a well-managed ecosystem. ]. SHALHEVET Contents I. Water Status and Flow in Soils A. Water Movement in Soils 1. SWARTZENDRUBER, D., and D. HILLEL: The Physics of Infiltration. 3 2. DAGAN, G., and U. KROSZYNSKI: Drainage of a Vertical Column. . 17 3. MOREL-SEYTOUX, H. ]., and A. NOBLANC: Infiltration Predictions by a Moving Strained Coordinates Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 4. GROENEVELT, P. H., and G. H. BOLT: Theory of Transport in Soils: Generalized Approaches Based on Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Ir reversible Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43 5. KASTANEK, F.: Calculation of Vertical Moisture Flow in a Soil Body during Evaporation, Infiltration and Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 c.: 6. BRAESTER, Linearized Solution of Infiltration at Constant Rate. . . . . .. 59 7. VAN KEULEN, H., and L. STROOSNIJDER: Analysis and Interpretation of Experi mentally Determined Absorption Curves. I. Interpretation via D-8 Function Derived from Numerical Analysis .......... ............. 65 8. STROOSNIjDER, L., and H. VAN KEULEN: Analysis and Interpretation of Experi mentally Determined Absorption Curves. II. Interpretation via an Equivalent Depth of Penetration and a Shape Factor .................... 71 9. BRUCE, R. R., and F. D. WHISLER: Infiltration of Water into Layered Field Soils 77 10. BYBORDI, M.: Infiltration of Water into Nonuniform Soils. . . . . . . . . .. 91 11. HADAS, A., and E. STIBBE: An Analysis of Soil Water Movement toward Seedlings Prior to Emergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 B. Energy of Soil Water and Soil-Water Interactions 1. ANDERSON, D. M., and A. R. DCE: The Unfrozen Interfacial Phase in Frozen Soil Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2. IWATA, S.: On the Energy Concept of Soil Water. 125 3. RAVINA, I.: The Mechanical and Physical Behaviour of Ca-Clay Soil and K-Clay Soil ......................................... 131 4. GAl RON, S., and D. SWARTZENDRUBER: Streaming-Potential Effects in Saturated Water Flow through a Sand-Kaolinite Mixture ................. 141 5. KUTILEK, M.: The Influence of Clay Minerals and Exchangeable Cations on Soil Moisture Potential ................................ 153 x Contents 6. POULOVASSILIS, A.: The Hysteresis of Pore Water in Presence of Non-Independent Water Elements. . . . . . . . . . .................... 161 7. JACQUIN, F., B. AILLIOT, and PH. CROS: Comparison between the Drainage Efficiency of a Leached Pseudogley Soil and a Pelosol ............ 181 8. CAVAZZA, L., V. COMEGNA, and D. LINSALATA: Correlation of Field Capacity between Open Field and Laboratory Determinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 9. EpSTEIN, E., and W. j. GRANT: Soil Crust Formation as Affected by Raindrop Impact ...... . 195 Remarks and Discussion . 203 II. Evapotranspiration and Crop-Water Requirements A. Evaporation from Soils and Plants 1. STANHILL, G.: Evaporation, Transpiration and Evapotranspiration: A Case for Ockham's Razor .................................. 207 2. KI]NE, ]. W.: Evaporation from Bare Soils ..................... 221 3. ROSENBERG, N. ]., I. SEGINER, and I. LOMAS: Evaporation from Bare Soil in a Coastal Environment ............................... 227 4. SKIDMORE, E. L., and L. j. HAGEN: Potential Evaporation as Influenced by Barrier-Induced Microclimate .......................... 237 5. HANKS, R. ]., H. S. JACOBS, H. E. SCHIMMELPFENNIG, and M. NIMAH: Evaluation of Several Methods for Estimating Evapotranspiration under Semi-Arid Conditions .................................... 245 6. LAMBERT, ]. R., and F. W. T. PENNING DE VRIES: Dynamics of Water in the Soil-Plant Atmosphere System: A Model Named Troika ........... 257 7. LEGG, B. j., and I. F. LONG: Microclimate Factors Affecting Evaporation and Transpiration ................................... 275 8. VUCIC, N.: Bioclimatic Method for Scheduling Irrigation: Experiment with Maize in Vojvodina, Yugoslavia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 9. HAnAS, A., and M. FUCHS: Prediction of the Thermal Regime of Bare Soils .... 293 B. Crop-Water Requirements 1. LAUTER, c., L. MAKOKO, and L. W. DE BACKER: A Method of Determining, on the Farm, the Amount of Water and the Frequency of Irrigation ...... 301 2. DRAYCOTT, A. P.: Measurement of Soil Moisture Deficit by Neutron Moderation under Two Densities of Sugar Beet with and without Irrigation. . . . . . . 309 3. RAWITZ, E., and D. HILLEL: A Runoff-Farming Trial with Almonds in the Negev of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Contents XI 4. ARANDA, J. M.: Results from a Three-Year Experiment on the Effect of the Irrigation Regime on the Yield of Corn in Southwest Spain. . . . 325 5. WILLATI, S. T.: Moisture Use by Irrigated Tea in Southern Malawi ....... 331 6. SHMUELI, E., H. BIELORAI, J. HELLER, and A. MANTELL: Citrus Water Require- ment Experiments Conducted in Israel during the 1960's ........... 339 7. LEVIN, 1., B. BRAVDO, and R. ASSAF: Relation between Apple Root Distribution and Soil Water Extraction in Different Irrigation Regimes .......... 351 Remarks and Discussion ................................. 361 III. Salinity Control 1. SHAKED, D., and A. BANIN: Ionic Activity and Ion Uptake by Plants Grown in Saline Environments ............................... 367 2. VAN BEEK, C. G. E. M., and G. H. BoLT: The Relationship between the Com position of the Exchange Complex and the Composition of the Soil Solution 379 3. YARON, B., J. SHALHEVET, and D. SHIMSHI: Patterns of Salt Distribution under Trickle Irrigation ................................. 389 4. ZUR, B., and E. BRESLER: A Model for the Water and Salt Economy in Irrigated Agriculture .................................... 395 5. HELLER, J., J. SHALHEVET, and A. GOEL: Response of a Citrus Orchard to Soil Moisture and Soil Salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 6. MEIRI, A., and J. SHALHEVET: Pepper Plant Response to Irrigation Water Quality and Timing of Leaching ............................. 421 7. ALPEROVITCH, N., and 1. SHAINBERG: Reclamation of Alkali Soils with CaCl 2 Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 8. MAGDOFF, F., and E. BRESLER: Evaluation of Methods for Reclaiming Sodic Soils with CaCl2 • • 441 Remarks and Discussion . 453 Subject Index . . . . . . . 455