Photovoltaic System Design Procedures, Tools and Applications Suneel Deambi CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20151123 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-48225980-3 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Deambi, Suneel, author. Title: Photovoltaic system design : procedures, tools and applications / Suneel Deambi. Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015045365 | ISBN 9781482259803 (hardcover : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Photovoltaic power systems—Design and construction. Classification: LCC TK1087 .D434 2016 | DDC 621.31/244--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015045365 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgements About the Author 1 Role of Renewable Energy Technologies in the Overall Energy Scenario at a Global Level 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Global Energy-Use Status 1.2.1 Role of Private Sector 1.3 Resource Mix 1.3.1 Various Policies to Match Energy Supply and Demand 1.3.2 Country-Specific Examples in Brief 1.3.3 Security of Energy Supply 1.3.4 Share of Fossil Fuels 1.3.5 Role of Low-Carbon Technologies 1.3.6 Environmental Advantage 1.3.7 Energy as an Enabler 1.3.8 Brief Analysis 1.3.9 Assessment of the Available Energy Technologies 1.3.9.1 Importance of ‘Net Energy’ 1.3.9.2 Nuclear Energy 1.3.9.3 Other Energy Sources 1.4 Existing Investment Climate for Renewable Energy Technologies 1.4.1 Introducing Solar Energy Technologies 1.4.1.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 1.4.2 Concentrated Solar Power Technology 1.4.3 Grid Parity 1.4.3.1 Taking the Challenge Head-On 1.4.3.2 Fast-Declining SPV Price Regime 1.5 Projected Worldwide Goals for the Development and Deployment of Solar Technology 1.5.1 Solar Photovoltaic Leading from the Front 1.5.2 Emerging Demand in MEA Region 1.6 Key Challenges and Opportunities 1.6.1 Primary Global Issues at Present 1.6.2 Markets and Policy Makers Both Play Crucial Roles 1.6.3 Five Key National Areas for Action 1.6.3.1 Policy Measures 1.7 Summary of Latest Indian Energy Scenario 1.7.1 Energy Issues and Challenges 1.7.2 Financial and Fiscal Incentives References 2 Off-Grid and On-Grid PV Applications 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Commonly Used Off-Grid PV Products 2.2.1 Solar Lantern 2.2.2 Solar Home-Lighting System 2.2.3 Solar Street-Lighting System 2.2.4 Solar Fans 2.2.5 Solar Garden Lights 2.2.6 Solar Chargers 2.2.7 Solar Inverter 2.2.7.1 Off-Grid Mode 2.2.7.2 On-Grid Mode 2.2.8 SPV Water Pumping System 2.2.8.1 Key Solar Water Pumping Technologies 2.3 Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Power Plant 2.3.1 Role of State Governments 2.3.1.1 Institutional Arrangements 2.3.2 Brief Outlook on Global PV Rooftop Market 2.3.2.1 Rooftop System Description 2.3.2.2 Identification and Traceability 2.4 Solar Net-Metering 2.4.1 Cost Analysis 2.4.2 Key Objectives of the PV Rooftop Programme 2.5 Electricity Bill with Solar Net-Metering – A Few Case-Specific Examples 2.5.1 Getting a Solar Net-Metering Connection – Five Convenient Steps 2.5.2 Safety Requirements for Grid-Connected SPV Systems 2.5.3 Technical Standards for Connectivity 2.5.3.1 Classification of Projects Based on Grid Connectivity 2.5.4 Business Models for Grid-Connected Rooftop and Small Solar Power Plants 2.6 Estimated Rooftop Potential for Central Government Buildings 2.6.1 Current Status of PV Rooftop Deployment in India 2.6.1.1 Fiscal and Financial Incentives for Rooftop PV 2.6.2 A Few Selective Large-Capacity PV Rooftop Installations 2.6.3 Case Study for an 80 kWp PV Rooftop System at Hero Honda 2.7 Status of Large-Capacity Grid-Connected Power Generation 2.7.1 Capacity Addition under Various Schemes References 3 Solar Radiation Availability on Earth 3.1 Introduction 3.2 About the Earth 3.2.1 Key Outcome of Earth’s Rotation 3.2.2 Energy Balance 3.3 Radiation Emissions 3.4 Solar Radiation Terminology 3.4.1 Solar Radiation on Different Sources 3.5 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship 3.5.1 Sun’s Trajectories during Different Seasons 3.5.2 Key Factors on Which Insolation Depends 3.5.3 Quantity of Radiation (Absorbed) 3.5.4 Radiation on a Tilted Surface 3.5.5 Concept of In-Plane Radiation 3.5.5.1 Case-Specific Example 3.5.5.2 Empirical Estimation of Solar Radiation 3.6 Radiation Measurement Techniques 3.6.1 Different Types of Sensors 3.6.2 Different Types of Pyranometers 3.6.3 Measurement of Direct Radiation 3.6.3.1 Broad Classifications of Pyrheliometers 3.6.4 Sunshine Recorder 3.6.4.1 Albedometer 3.6.5 Measurement Accuracy of Solar Radiation 3.7 Overview of Solar Radiation Measurement Activity in India 3.7.1 Salient Features of SRRA 3.7.1.1 Data Acquisition System 3.7.2 Institutional Collaboration References 4 On-Site–Specific Considerations 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Efforts at Preliminary Siting of PV Power Plants 4.2.1 Strategic Approach for Siting 4.2.2 Solar Insolation Determination 4.3 Solar PV Selection Model in GIS Environment 4.3.1 Criteria Identification 4.3.2 Geographic Data-Specific Software 4.3.2.1 Generation of Maps for the Site 4.3.3 Exclusion Criteria 4.3.4 Assigned Choice 4.3.5 Simple Concept of a Sun Path Diagram 4.4 Role of Geotechnical Investigation in Solar PV Power Plants 4.4.1 Case-Specific Example 4.4.1.1 Standard Penetration Test 4.4.1.2 Measurement of Water Table 4.4.1.3 Summing Up the Geotechnical Issues 4.5 Overview of Risks in Solar Projects Prior to Their Commissioning References 5 PV System Design Considerations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Key Attributes of Solar Modules 5.2.1 Design and Structure Concept 5.2.2 Industry Ratings of Solar Modules 5.2.2.1 Effect of Solar Irradiation 5.2.2.2 Effect of Temperature 5.2.2.3 Mismatch in Solar Cell/Module 5.2.2.4 Mismatch of Series-Connected Solar Cells 5.2.2.5 Occurrence of Hotspots in Solar Modules 5.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics 5.3.1 Availability of Solar Energy 5.3.2 Cost of the System 5.4 Additional Attributes of a Solar PV System 5.5 System Design–Specific Considerations 5.6 Balance of System 5.6.1 Matching Issues with System Components 5.6.2 Key Design Characteristics 5.6.3 Underlying Attributes of an MPPT Controller Technology 5.7 Sizing of PV System 5.7.1 Manual Procedures for System Sizing 5.7.1.1 Determine the Total Load Current and Operational Time 5.7.1.2 Add System Losses 5.7.1.3 Determine the Solar Irradiation in Daily Equivalent Sun Hours 5.7.1.4 Case-Specific Example 5.7.2 Determine Total Solar Array Current Requirements 5.7.2.1 Determine Optimum Module Arrangement for Solar Array 5.7.3 Case-Specific Example 5.7.3.1 Determine Battery Size 5.8 Cost of a PV System 5.8.1 Cost of the Balance of System 6 Introduction to PV System Sizing Procedures via Simulation Software 6.1 Introduction