Phosphorus Management in Crop Production Phosphorus Management in Crop Production Nand Kumar Fageria National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA, Brazil Zhenli L. He University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science, Indian River Research and Education Center, USA Virupax C. Baligar USDA-ARS – Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, USA CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20161205 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-0586-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright. com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Fageria, N. K., 1942- author. | He, Zhenli, author. | Baligar, V. C., author. Title: Phosphorus management in crop production/authors: Nand Kumar Fageria, Zhenli L. He, Virupax C. Baligar. Description: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016036026 | ISBN 9781498705868 (hardback: alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Phosphorus in agriculture. Classification: LCC S587.5.P56 F34 2017 | DDC 631.8/5--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036026 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface ...............................................................................................................................................xi Authors ............................................................................................................................................xiii Chapter 1 World Phosphate Situation and Factors Affecting Phosphorus Availability to Plants in Soil ............................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1 1.2 Historical Overview ...........................................................................................7 1.3 World Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources ...............................................8 1.4 Mineralogy of Phosphate Rocks ......................................................................11 1.5 Glossary of Phosphorus-Related Terms...........................................................11 1.6 Cycle in Soil–Plant System .............................................................................15 1.7 Organic Phosphorus in Soils ............................................................................18 1.8 Inorganic Phosphorus in Soils .........................................................................19 1.9 Reaction of Phosphorus Fertilizers in Soil ......................................................19 1.10 Evaluation and Utilization of Residual Phosphorus in Soils ...........................20 1.11 Factors Influencing Phosphorus Availability to Plants ....................................22 1.11.1 Climatic Factors .................................................................................22 1.11.1.1 Precipitation ........................................................................22 1.11.1.2 Temperature ........................................................................24 1.11.2 Soil Factors .........................................................................................26 1.11.2.1 Aeration and Compaction ...................................................26 1.11.2.2 Concentration and Forms of Soil Phosphorus ....................27 1.11.2.3 Soil pH ................................................................................28 1.11.2.4 Presence of Aluminum and Iron Oxides .............................29 1.11.3 Plant Factors .......................................................................................30 1.11.3.1 Release of Organic and Inorganic Compounds in the Rhizosphere ..............................................................30 1.11.3.2 Crop Species/Genotypes within Species ............................31 1.11.3.3 Colonization of Rhizosphere by Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria ......................................35 1.11.3.4 Mycorrhiza Fungi Symbiosis by Plant Roots .....................36 1.11.3.5 Phosphatase Activity in the Rhizosphere ............................37 1.12 Conclusions .....................................................................................................37 References ..................................................................................................................37 Chapter 2 Functions of Phosphorus in Crop Plants ....................................................................47 2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................47 2.2 Functions .........................................................................................................48 2.2.1 Morphological Functions ...................................................................49 2.2.1.1 Plant Height ........................................................................50 2.2.1.2 Tillering ..............................................................................52 2.2.1.3 Shoot Dry Weight ...............................................................53 2.2.1.4 Leaf Area Index ..................................................................60 2.2.1.5 Root Growth .......................................................................61 2.2.1.6 Yield and Yield Components and Related Traits ................67 v vi Contents 2.2.2 Physiological Functions .....................................................................77 2.2.2.1 Essential for Photosynthesis ...............................................77 2.2.2.2 Improves Grain Harvest Index ............................................78 2.2.2.3 Positive Interactions with Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilization .......................................................79 2.2.2.4 Improves Grain Quality ......................................................81 2.2.2.5 Accelerates Grain Maturation .............................................81 2.2.3 Biochemical Functions .......................................................................84 2.2.3.1 Role in Plant Metabolisms ..................................................84 2.2.3.2 Role in Energy Transfer Processes .....................................85 2.2.3.3 Role in Plant Structure ........................................................85 2.2.3.4 Improves Biological Nitrogen Fixation ..............................85 2.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................................86 References ..................................................................................................................86 Chapter 3 Diagnostic Techniques for Phosphorus Requirements in Crop Plants .......................91 3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................91 3.2 Phosphorus Deficiency, Sufficiency, and Toxicity Diagnostic Techniques .....93 3.2.1 Visual Deficiency Symptoms .............................................................94 3.2.2 Visual Toxicity Symptoms .................................................................99 3.2.3 Soil Test ............................................................................................105 3.2.4 Plant Tissue Test ...............................................................................106 3.3 Phosphorus Concentration in Plants ..............................................................107 3.4 Phosphorus Uptake in Plants .........................................................................112 3.5 Phosphorus Harvest Index .............................................................................117 3.6 Phosphorus Requirements of Cereals ............................................................118 3.6.1 Rice ...................................................................................................119 3.6.1.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Rice Plant Tissues ...........119 3.6.1.2 Adequate Phosphorus Fertilizer Rate ...............................119 3.6.2 Wheat and Barley .............................................................................121 3.6.2.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Wheat and Barley Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ............................................................................122 3.6.3 Corn ..................................................................................................123 3.6.3.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Corn Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ..........................124 3.6.4 Sorghum ...........................................................................................125 3.6.4.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Sorghum Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................125 3.7 Phosphorus Requirement of Legumes ...........................................................126 3.7.1 Dry Bean...........................................................................................127 3.7.1.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Dry Bean Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................127 3.7.2 Soybean ............................................................................................127 3.7.2.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Soybean Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................129 3.7.3 Peanuts .............................................................................................129 3.7.3.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Soybean Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................130 Contents vii 3.8 Phosphorus Nutrition of Cotton, Sugarcane, and Sugar Beet........................131 3.8.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Cotton, Sugarcane, and Sugar Beet Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer .....131 3.9 Phosphorus Nutrition of Tuber and Root Crops ............................................134 3.9.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Potato, Cassava, and Sweet Potato Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ......135 3.10 Conclusions ...................................................................................................136 References ................................................................................................................137 Chapter 4 Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Crop Plants ...............................................................143 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................143 4.2 Definition of Mineral Nutrient Efficiency and Nutrient-Efficient Plants ......144 4.3 Type of Phosphorus Use Efficiency and Mathematical Equations for Their Calculation .....................................................................................144 4.3.1 Experimental Results ........................................................................146 4.4 Phosphorus Use Efficiency versus Crop Yield...............................................155 4.5 Mechanisms Responsible for Variation in Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Crop Plants ................................................................................................155 4.5.1 Root Geometry .................................................................................158 4.5.2 Higher Rate of Nutrient Absorption at Low Rhizosphere Concentrations ..................................................................................159 4.5.3 Ability of Plant to Solubilize Nutrients in the Rhizosphere .............160 4.5.4 Better Distribution and Utilization of Nutrients within Plants .........161 4.5.5 Allocation of Dry Matter within Plants ............................................162 4.5.6 Balanced Source and Sink Relationship ...........................................162 4.6 Breeding Crop Species/Genotypes for Improved Phosphorus Use Efficiency .......................................................................................................163 4.7 Enhancing Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Crop Species/Genotypes .............165 4.7.1 Improving Climatic Factors ..............................................................165 4.7.2 Improving Soil Factors .....................................................................166 4.7.3 Improving Plant Factors ...................................................................167 4.7.4 Improving Biological Factors ...........................................................167 4.7.4.1 Mycorrhizae ......................................................................167 4.7.4.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) ..............168 4.8 Molecular and Genetic Approach to Improve Phosphorus Use Efficiency ...168 4.9 Conclusions ...................................................................................................169 References ................................................................................................................169 Chapter 5 Phosphorus Interactions with Other Nutrients .........................................................177 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................177 5.2 Phosphorus Interactions with Macronutrients ...............................................178 5.2.1 Phosphorus versus Nitrogen .............................................................178 5.2.2 Phosphorus versus Potassium ...........................................................182 5.2.3 Phosphorus versus Calcium ..............................................................189 5.2.4 Phosphorus versus Magnesium ........................................................193 5.2.5 Phosphorus versus Sulfur .................................................................194 5.3 Phosphorus versus Micronutrients.................................................................195 5.3.1 Phosphorus versus Zinc ....................................................................196 5.3.2 Phosphorus versus Copper ...............................................................199 viii Contents 5.3.3 Phosphorus versus Manganese .........................................................199 5.3.4 Phosphorus versus Iron ....................................................................200 5.3.5 Phosphorus versus Boron .................................................................201 5.3.6 Phosphorus versus Molybdenum ......................................................202 5.3.7 Phosphorus versus Chlorine .............................................................202 5.3.8 Phosphorus versus Nickel ................................................................203 5.3.9 Phosphorus versus Soil Salinity .......................................................203 5.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................206 References ................................................................................................................207 Chapter 6 Phosphorus and the Environment .............................................................................211 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................211 6.2 Transport of Phosphorus from Agricultural Lands to Aquatic Environments ....212 6.2.1 Phosphorus Sorption ........................................................................213 6.2.2 Phosphorus Desorption ....................................................................213 6.2.3 Phosphorus Leaching .......................................................................214 6.2.4 Detachment and Transport of Particulate Phosphorus .....................215 6.2.5 Changes in Phosphate Forms during Transport ................................216 6.2.6 Amount of Phosphorus Loss from Landscape to Aquatic Environments ....................................................................................216 6.2.7 Impact of Phosphorus on the Environment ......................................217 6.2.8 Reclamation of Aquatic/Soil Environment Contaminated with Excess Phosphorus ...................................................................219 6.3 Management Practices to Reduce Phosphorus Loss from Soil–Plant System ...........................................................................................................220 6.3.1 Control of Soil Erosion ....................................................................220 6.3.2 Adequate Phosphorus Rate ...............................................................221 6.3.3 Agronomic and Environmental Soil P Tests .....................................221 6.3.4 Conservation Tillage .........................................................................222 6.3.5 Cover Crops ......................................................................................223 6.3.6 Diet Manipulation to Reduce Phosphorus in Animal Wastes ...........223 6.3.7 Manure Management ........................................................................225 6.3.8 Recovery of Precipitated Phosphorus from Wastes ..........................226 6.3.9 Thermal Drying of Sewage Sludge ..................................................226 6.3.10 Use of Buffers ..................................................................................226 6.3.11 Grass Waterways ..............................................................................227 6.3.12 Irrigation Management .....................................................................227 6.3.13 Streambank Protection .....................................................................227 6.3.14 Phosphorus Index .............................................................................228 6.3.15 Fertilizer and Manure Application Methods and Timing .................230 6.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................230 References ................................................................................................................231 Chapter 7 Management Practices for Optimizing Phosphorus Availability to Crop Plants ......239 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................239 7.2 Soil Management ...........................................................................................239 7.2.1 Liming Acid Soils .............................................................................239 7.2.1.1 Beneficial Effects of Liming .............................................240 7.2.1.2 Improves Crop Yields .......................................................240 Contents ix 7.2.1.3 Improves Soil Chemical Properties ..................................245 7.2.1.4 Reducing Phosphorus Immobilization ..............................248 7.2.1.5 Improving Activities of Beneficial Microorganisms .........249 7.2.1.6 Reducing Solubility and Leaching of Heavy Metals ........250 7.2.1.7 Improve Soil Structure ......................................................250 7.2.1.8 Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency ...................................251 7.2.1.9 Control of Plant Diseases ..................................................251 7.2.1.10 Mitigation of Nitrous Oxide Emission from Soils ............252 7.2.1.11 Acid-Tolerant Crop Species and Genotypes within Species ...................................................................252 7.2.2 Gypsum ............................................................................................258 7.2.3 Organic Manures ..............................................................................262 7.2.3.1 Municipal Biosolids ..........................................................263 7.2.3.2 Animal Manures ...............................................................264 7.2.3.3 Compost ............................................................................266 7.2.3.4 Green Manuring ................................................................267 7.2.4 Control of Soil Erosion ....................................................................274 7.3 Fertilizer Management ...................................................................................275 7.3.1 Efficient Phosphorus Source ............................................................275 7.3.2 Efficient Method of Application .......................................................294 7.3.3 Adopting Appropriate Time of Application .....................................295 7.3.4 Adequate Phosphorus Rate ...............................................................295 7.4 Crop Management .........................................................................................297 7.4.1 Crop Rotation ...................................................................................298 7.4.2 Conservation Tillage .........................................................................299 7.4.3 Supply of Adequate Moisture/Improve Water Use Efficiency .........300 7.4.4 Efficient Crop Species/Genotypes ....................................................300 7.4.5 Control of Diseases, Insects, and Weeds ..........................................303 7.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................303 References ................................................................................................................303 Chapter 8 Phosphorus Nutrition Research in Crop Plants: Basic Principles and Methodology ......................................................................................................317 8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................317 8.2 Research under Controlled Conditions ..........................................................317 8.2.1 Experimental Procedure and Techniques .........................................318 8.2.1.1 Soil Culture .......................................................................319 8.2.1.2 Solution Culture ................................................................323 8.3 Research under Field Conditions ...................................................................337 8.3.1 Basic Considerations for Conducting Field Experimentation ..........338 8.3.1.1 Hypothesis and Objectives ................................................338 8.3.1.2 Selection of Appropriate Site ............................................338 8.3.1.3 Land Preparation ...............................................................339 8.3.1.4 Plot Size, Shape, and Orientation .....................................339 8.3.1.5 Experimental Design ........................................................340 8.3.1.6 Selection of the Treatments ..............................................341 8.3.1.7 Sowing ..............................................................................342 8.3.1.8 Cultural Practices ..............................................................342 8.3.1.9 Data Collection .................................................................342 8.3.1.10 Harvesting .........................................................................345