Phonological Adaptation of English Loanwords in Ammani Arabic Mohammed Nour Abu Guba School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences University of Salford, Salford, UK Submitted in Full Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, August 2016 i Dedication To the memory of my mom, To my dad, To my wife and children, To my brothers and sisters ii Table of contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Table of contents ........................................................................................................ iii List of symbols and abbreviations .......................................................................... viii List of tables and figures ............................................................................................. x Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... xii Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1Significance of the phonological study of loanwords ........................................... 3 1.2 Choice of dialect .................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Language contact and loanwords in AA .............................................................. 7 1.4 Research questions and objectives of the study ................................................... 7 1.5 Organization of the study ..................................................................................... 8 Chapter two ................................................................................................................ 11 Background and methodology .................................................................................. 11 2.1 Ammani Arabic phonology................................................................................ 12 2.1.1 AA phonemes.............................................................................................. 12 2.1.2 Relevance of Arabic morphology to loanword adaptation ......................... 15 2.1.3 Phonological features in AA ....................................................................... 18 2.1.3.1 Representation of labials ...................................................................... 20 2.1.3.2 Representation of coronals ................................................................... 21 2.1.3.3 Representation of dorsals ..................................................................... 23 2.1.3.4 Representation of gutturals .................................................................. 24 2.1.3.5 Pharyngealised (emphatic) coronals .................................................... 26 2.1.3.6 Representation of vowels ..................................................................... 27 2.2 Lexical borrowing .............................................................................................. 30 2.2.1 Definition of terms ...................................................................................... 31 2.2.2 The process of borrowing ........................................................................... 32 2.3 Integration of loanwords .................................................................................... 33 2.3.1 Non-phonological factors............................................................................ 33 2.3.2 Phonological adaptation of loanwords ........................................................ 36 2.3.3 Models of loanword adaptation .................................................................. 37 2.3.3.1 Phonological Stance Model ................................................................. 38 2.3.3.2 Perceptual Stance Model...................................................................... 42 2.3.3.2.1 Phonological Perception Model .................................................... 44 2.3.3.2.2 Perception-only Model.................................................................. 47 2.3.4 Section summary ......................................................................................... 48 2.4 Previous studies of loanwords in Arabic ........................................................... 50 2.5 Significance and rationale of the study .............................................................. 55 2.6 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 56 2.6.1 Data collection ............................................................................................ 56 2.6.2 Pilot study ................................................................................................... 59 2.6.3 Participants .................................................................................................. 59 2.6.4 PRAAT analysis.......................................................................................... 61 2.7 Theoretical model .............................................................................................. 62 iii 2.7.1 Moraic Theory ............................................................................................ 62 2.7.2 Stratal OT .................................................................................................... 63 2.7.3 The Emergence of the Unmarked ............................................................... 65 2.8. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 66 Chapter three ............................................................................................................. 68 Segmental adaptation within loanwords .................................................................. 68 3.1 Consonant adaptation ......................................................................................... 69 3.1.1 Adaptation in terms of phonological classes .............................................. 71 3.1.1.1 Adaptation of stops .............................................................................. 71 3.1.1.1.1 Adaptation of the voiceless bilabial stop /p/ ................................. 71 3.1.1.1.2 Adaptation of the voiced bilabial stop /b/ ..................................... 72 3.1.1.1.3 Adaptation of the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ ................................. 72 3.1.1.1.4 Adaptation of the voiced alveolar stop /d/ .................................... 73 3.1.1.1.5 Adaptation of the voiceless velar stop /k/ ..................................... 73 3.1.1.1.6 Adaptation of the voiced velar stop /g/ ......................................... 74 3.1.1.2 Adaptation of fricatives ........................................................................ 74 3.1.1.2.1 Adaptation of the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ ..................... 74 3.1.1.2.2 Adaptation of the voiced labiodental fricative /v/ ......................... 75 3.1.1.2.3 Adaptation of the voiceless dental fricative /θ/ ............................. 76 3.1.1.2.4 Adaptation of the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ .......................... 77 3.1.1.2.5 Adaptation of the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ .............................. 77 3.1.1.2.6 Adaptation of the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ ............... 77 3.1.1.2.7 Adaptation of the voiced palato-alveolar fricative /ʒ/ ................... 77 3.1.1.2.8 Adaptation of the voiceless glottal fricative /h/ ............................ 78 3.1.1.3 Adaptation of affricates........................................................................ 78 3.1.1.3.1 Adaptation of the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate /tʃ/ .............. 78 3.1.1.3.2 Adaptation of the voiced palato-alveolar affricate /dʒ/ ................. 79 3.1.1.4 Adaptation of nasals ............................................................................. 79 3.1.1.4.1 Adaptation of the bilabial nasal /m/ .............................................. 79 3.1.1.4.2 Adaptation of the alveolar nasal /n/ .............................................. 81 3.1.1.4.3 Adaptation of the velar nasal /ŋ/ ................................................... 81 3.1.1.5 Adaptation of liquids............................................................................ 82 3.1.1.5.1 Adaptation of the lateral /l/ ........................................................... 82 3.1.1.5.2 Adaptation of the rhotic /r/ ............................................................ 85 3.1.1.5.3 Alveolar sonorant alternations ...................................................... 86 3.1.1.6 Adaptation of glides ............................................................................. 87 3.1.1.6.1 Adaptation of the palatal /j/ ........................................................... 87 3.1.1.6.2 Adaptation of the labio-velar /w/ .................................................. 87 3.1.2 Phonological processes affecting consonants ............................................. 87 3.1.2.1 Emphasis .............................................................................................. 88 3.1.2.1.1 Emphasis in AA ............................................................................ 88 3.1.2.1.2 Emphasis in loanwords ................................................................. 91 3.1.2.1.2.1 Where does emphasis come from? ............................................ 92 3.1.2.2 Assimilation ......................................................................................... 94 3.1.2.2.1 Voice assimilation ......................................................................... 94 3.1.2.2.2 Place assimilation.......................................................................... 95 3.1.2.2.3 Complete assimilation ................................................................... 96 3.1.2.3 Lenition ................................................................................................ 97 3.1.2.3.1 Motivation for lenition .................................................................. 98 3.1.2.4 Fortition................................................................................................ 98 iv 3.1.2.4.1 Devoicing ...................................................................................... 98 3.1.2.4.2 Occlusivisation .............................................................................. 99 3.1.3 Phonological features in the adaptation process ......................................... 99 3.1.3.1. Behaviour of features in the adaptation process ............................... 100 3.1.3.1.1 Laryngeal features ....................................................................... 100 3.1.3.1.2 Manner features .......................................................................... 101 3.1.3.1.3 Place features .............................................................................. 101 3.1.3.2 Implications for phonological theories .............................................. 102 3.1.4 Section summary ....................................................................................... 103 3.2 Vowel adaptation ............................................................................................. 104 3.2.1 Adaptation of short vowels ....................................................................... 106 3.2.1.1 Adaptation of / ɪ/ ................................................................................ 106 3.2.1.2 Adaptation of /æ/................................................................................ 107 3.2.1.3 Adaptation of /e/ ................................................................................ 107 3.2.1.4 Adaptation of /ʊ/ ................................................................................ 108 3.2.1.5 Adaptation of /ʌ/ ................................................................................ 109 3.2.1.6 Adaptation of /ɒ/ ................................................................................ 110 3.2.1.7 Adaptation of /ə/ ................................................................................ 111 3.2.2 Adaptation of long vowels ........................................................................ 112 3.2.2.1 Adaptation of /i:/ ................................................................................ 112 3.2.2.2 Adaptation of /u:/ ............................................................................... 113 3.2.2.3 Adaptation of /ɑ:/ ............................................................................... 114 3.2.2.4 Adaptation of /ɔː/ ............................................................................... 115 3.2.2.5 Adaptation of /ɜː/ ............................................................................... 115 3.2.3 Adaptation of diphthongs .......................................................................... 116 3.2.3.1 Adaptation of /ɪə/ ............................................................................... 116 3.2.3.2 Adaptation of /eə/ ............................................................................... 117 3.2.3.3 Adaptation of /ʊə/ .............................................................................. 117 3.2.3.4 Adaptation of /əʊ/ .............................................................................. 117 3.2.3.5 Adaptation of /aʊ/ .............................................................................. 118 3.2.3.6 Adaptation of /eɪ/ ............................................................................... 118 3.2.3.7 Adaptation of /aɪ/ ............................................................................... 120 3.2.3.8 Adaptation of /ɔɪ/ ............................................................................... 120 3.2.4 Adaptation in terms of backness, height and length ................................. 121 3.2.5 Vowel formants ......................................................................................... 123 3.2.6 Interim summary ....................................................................................... 126 3.2.7 Phonological processes affecting vowels.................................................. 126 3.2.7.1 Lengthening ....................................................................................... 126 3.2.7.2 Shortening .......................................................................................... 127 3.2.7.2.1 Shortening long vowels internally in AA ................................... 128 3.2.7.2.2 Final vowel shortening in AA ..................................................... 128 3.2.7.2.3 Shortening in loanwords ............................................................. 129 3.2.7.3 Monophthongisation .......................................................................... 131 3.2.7.4 Vowel harmony .................................................................................. 133 3.2.7.4.1 Vowel harmony in AA ................................................................ 133 3.2.7.4.2 Vowel harmony in AA loanwords .............................................. 135 3.3 Factors affecting segmental adaptation ............................................................ 141 3.3.1 Perception and phonetics .......................................................................... 142 3.3.2 The role of orthography ............................................................................ 143 3.3.3 Co-occurrence restrictions ........................................................................ 145 v 3.3.4 The Emergence of the Unmarked ............................................................. 145 3.3.5 Other linguistic factors .............................................................................. 146 3.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 147 Chapter four ............................................................................................................. 149 Syllable structure and syllabification of loanwords .............................................. 149 4.1 Syllable structure in AA native words ............................................................. 150 4.1.1 Onsets ........................................................................................................ 151 4.1.2 Codas......................................................................................................... 152 4.2 Syllable structure in loanwords ........................................................................ 157 4.2.1 Onsets ........................................................................................................ 158 4.2.1.1 Simplex onsets ................................................................................... 158 4.2.1.2 Complex onsets .................................................................................. 158 4.2.2 Codas......................................................................................................... 160 4.2.2.1 Simplex codas .................................................................................... 160 4.2.2.2 Complex codas ................................................................................... 161 4.2.3 Medial -CCC- clusters .............................................................................. 163 4.2.4 CCCC clusters ........................................................................................... 164 4.3 Syllabification .................................................................................................. 165 4.3.1. Syllabification algorithm ......................................................................... 166 4.3.1.1 Semisyllables and mora sharing......................................................... 168 4.3.2 OT analysis of syllable structure ............................................................... 176 4.3.2.1 Simple margins and nuclei ................................................................. 176 4.3.2.2 Analysis of complex onsets ............................................................... 179 4.3.2.3 Analysis of superheavy syllables ....................................................... 181 4.3.2.3.1 CVVC syllables .......................................................................... 181 4.3.2.3.2 CVCC Syllables .......................................................................... 183 4.3.3 Section summary ....................................................................................... 189 4.4 Syllable repair processes .................................................................................. 190 4.4.1 Hiatus resolution in loanwords ................................................................. 191 4.4.2 Deletion ..................................................................................................... 191 4.4.3 Syncope ..................................................................................................... 193 4.4.4 Epenthesis ................................................................................................. 195 4.4.4.1 Vowel epenthesis in native AA words ............................................... 195 4.4.4.1.1 Lexical vowel epenthesis ............................................................ 196 4.4.4.1.2 Postlexical vowel epenthesis....................................................... 197 4.4.4.2 Epenthesis in loanwords .................................................................... 198 4.4.4.2.1 Site of epenthetic vowel .............................................................. 199 4.4.4.2.2 The quality of the epenthetic vowel ............................................ 202 4.4.4.2.3 Epenthetic versus lexical vowels ................................................ 204 4.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 207 Chapter five .............................................................................................................. 209 Prosodic adaptation: Stress assignment and gemination ..................................... 209 5.1 Stress adaptation in loanwords......................................................................... 210 5.1.1 Stress assignment in native AA words...................................................... 212 5.1.2 Stress assignment in loanwords ................................................................ 215 5.1.2.1 Stress in terms of position .................................................................. 216 5.1.2.1.1 Stress in monosyllabic words.............................................................. 216 5.1.2.1.2 Stress in disyllabic words............................................................ 217 5.1.2.1.3 Stress in trisyllabic words ........................................................... 218 5.1.2.1.4 Stress in quadrisyllabic words .................................................... 220 vi 5.1.2.2 Adapted stressed syllables in terms of weight ................................... 221 5.1.2.3 Stress shift .......................................................................................... 223 5.1.2.3.1 Stress shift in disyllabic words ................................................... 224 5.1.2.3.2 Stress shift in trisyllabic words ................................................... 225 5.1.2.3.3 Stress shift in quadrisyllabic words ............................................ 227 5.1.2.4 What happens to source stressed vowels ........................................... 228 5.1.2.5 Interim summary ................................................................................ 229 5.1.3 Acoustic analysis ...................................................................................... 230 5.1.3.1 Stress acoustic correlates ................................................................... 230 5.1.3.2 Experiment one .................................................................................. 231 5.1.3.2.1 PRAAT sample selection ............................................................ 232 5.1.3.2.2 Measurement results ................................................................... 233 5.1.3.2.3 Statistical analysis of F0 ............................................................. 236 5.1.3.2.4 Statistical analysis of intensity .................................................... 237 5.1.3.3 Further analysis of stress correlates ................................................... 237 5.1.3.3.1 Statistical analysis of duration .................................................... 239 5.1.3.3.2 Statistical analysis of intensity .................................................... 240 5.1.3.3.3 Statistical analysis of F0 ............................................................. 240 5.1.3.4 Interim summary ................................................................................ 240 5.1.4. Theoretical analysis of stress assignment ................................................ 241 5.1.4.1 Previous studies on JA and PA .......................................................... 241 5.1.4.2 Stress algorithm ................................................................................. 243 5.1.4.3 OT analysis ........................................................................................ 246 5.1.4.3.1 Stress assignment in monosyllabic words................................... 250 5.1.4.3.2 Stress assignment in polysyllabic words ………………………251 5.1.4.3.3 Evidence for ALIGN-L ............................................................... 259 5.1.5 Section summary ................................................................................... 263 5.2 Gemination ....................................................................................................... 266 5.2.1 Gemination in AA native words ............................................................... 266 5.2.2 Gemination in loanwords .......................................................................... 268 5.2.2.1 Gemination for minimality ................................................................ 269 5.2.2.1.1 Evidence for final gemination ..................................................... 273 5.2.2.2 Gemination for markedness ............................................................... 276 5.2.2.2.1 Group A: Gemination for ONSET, SWP, FTBIN and NONFIN277 5.2.2.2.2 Group B: Gemination for ONSET, ALIGN-L and FTBIN ......... 281 5.2.2.3 Role of orthography ........................................................................... 284 5.2.2.4 What consonants are more susceptible to gemination? ..................... 286 5.2.2.5 Section summary ................................................................................ 287 5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 288 Chapter six ................................................................................................................ 290 Concluding remarks and recommendations ......................................................... 290 6.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 290 6.2 Contribution of the study ................................................................................. 294 6.3 Limitations of the study ................................................................................... 297 6.4 Recommendations for further study................................................................. 297 Appendix: Loanword corpus .................................................................................. 299 References ................................................................................................................. 314 vii List of symbols and abbreviations AA Ammani Arabic1 C Consonant CA Classical Arabic dB Decibel ERR End Rule Right f. Feminine F0 Fundamental Frequency H Heavy syllable Hz Hertz JA Jordanian Arabic L Light syllable L1 Recipient/borrowing language L2 Source language m. Masculine ms Millisecond obs Obstruent OCP Obligatory Contour Principle OT Optimality Theory PA Palestinian Arabic pl. Plural s. Singular SA Standard Arabic SL Source language son Sonorant SSP Sonority Sequencing Principle TETU The Emergence of the Unmarked V Vowel Prwd prosodic/phonological word 1 I use AA to refer to the subdialect of Ammani Arabic I am addressing in this thesis (see §1.2). viii ☞ Optimal candidate μ Mora σ Syllable node 〈a〉 Extrametrical element > Becomes, is mapped/realised as . Syllable boundary * Ungrammatical form; reconstructed form ' Preceding a stressed syllable a ~ b a alternates with b ix List of tables and figures Tables Table 2.1 AA consonant phonemes 13 Table 2.2 Noun inflections in AA 17 Table 2.3 AA phonological features 29 Table 2.4 A comparison of loanword adaptation models 37 Table 3.1 Overview of consonant adaptation 70 Table 3.2 Adaptation and distribution of the lateral allophones 84 Table 3.3 Mean formant values of lateral allophones 84 Table 3.4 Arabic alveolar sonorants 86 Table 3.5 F2 readings in emphatic and non-emphatic contexts 90 Table 3.6 VOT measurements of plain and emphatic alveolar voiceless stops 92 Table 3.7 Adaptation of English vowels into AA 104 Table 3.8 Adaptation in terms of length 121 Table 3.9 Adaptation of diphthongs 122 Table 3.10 Adaptation in terms of backness 123 Table 3.11 Adaptation in terms of height 123 Table 3.12 Formants of AA monophthongs 124 Table 3.13 Formants of SSBE monophthongs 124 Table 3.14 Comparison of actual and predicted monophthong adaptation 125 Table 4.1 Possible vs. impossible coda clusters in AA 153 Table 4.2 Syllable type frequency 157 Table 4.3 Mean readings and standard deviations of lexical and epenthetic vowels 205 Table 4.4 Mean readings of excrescent vowels 206 Table 5.1 Distribution of stressed syllables in terms of position 216 Table 5.2 Stress shift in loanwords 223 Table 5.3 Stress shift in disyllabic words 225 Table 5.4 Stress shift in trisyllabic words 226 x