Philosophy through Computer Science What do philosophy and computer science have in common? It turns out, quite a lot! In providing an introduction to computer science (using Python), Daniel Lim presents in this book key philosophical issues, ranging from external world skepticism to the existence of God to the problem of induction. These issues, and others, are introduced through the use of critical com- putational concepts, ranging from image manipulation to recursive pro- gramming to elementary machine learning techniques. In illuminating some of the overlapping conceptual spaces of computer science and phi- losophy, Lim teaches readers fundamental programming skills and allows them to develop the critical thinking skills essential for examining some of the enduring questions of philosophy. Key Features • Teaches readers actual computer programming, not merely ideas about computers • Includes fun programming projects (like digital image manipulation and Game of Life simulation), allowing the reader to develop the abil- ity to write larger computer programs that require decomposition, abstraction, and algorithmic thinking • Uses computational concepts to introduce, clarify, and develop a variety of philosophical issues • Covers various aspects of machine learning and relates them to philo- sophical issues involving science and induction as well as to ethical issues • Provides a framework to critically analyze arguments in classic and contemporary philosophical debates Daniel Lim is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at Duke Kunshan Uni- versity and a Research Fellow at the Center for Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Renmin University of China. He works in philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, experimental philosophy, and the intersection of phi- losophy and computation. He is the author of God and Mental Causation (2015). Philosophy through Computer Science An Introduction Daniel Lim First published 2023 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Taylor & Francis The right of Daniel Lim to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-1-032-22137-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-22136-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-27128-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003271284 Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra For IJ—can’t believe you’re here! Contents Preface ix 1 Philosophy and Computer Science 1 2 Python 9 3 Algorithms 22 4 Logic 30 5 Iteration 45 6 Image Manipulation 61 7 Skepticism 77 8 Functions 92 9 Mind 106 10 Game of Life 126 11 Free Will 142 12 Recursion 163 13 God 173 14 Data 184 viii Contents 15 Machine Learning 196 16 Induction 219 17 AI Ethics 237 18 Solutions 252 Appendix 267 Index 273 Preface I studied computer science back in the 1990s. After completing graduate school, I worked as a web-database programmer for several years. During this time, I developed a growing obsession with philosophical issues borne out of personal struggles. In particular, the existence of God and the na- ture of mind. So I did what any sensible person would do. I quit my job (to the utter dismay of my father) and went back to school. With a lot of perseverance, support, and luck, I finished my doctorate in philosophy and began working as an assistant professor at Renmin University of China. After six productive years, I moved to Duke Kunshan University near Shanghai as an associate professor. Due to the disproportionate student demand for computer and data science classes, I was given the chance to teach COMPSCI 101: Introduction to Computer Science. As a result, I had the unique opportunity to teach both philosophy and computer sci- ence classes over the last four years. It quickly became evident to me that the conceptual spaces of these two disciplines overlapped in a number of interesting ways. Naturally, I asked, “wouldn’t it be great to teach the two together?” I spent time developing the idea of teaching philosophy through computer science by publishing a couple of papers in pedagogy journals. This culminated in my developing a new class, PHIL 109: Phi- losophy through Computer Science. I offered it for the first time during the Spring 2020 semester and had a fantastic group of students who helped me see what worked and what didn’t. These encouraging results prompted me to begin writing this book. Parts of this book draw from previously published materials. Chapters 1, 7, 9, and 13 include material from “Philosophy through Computer Science” Teaching Philosophy 42 (2): 141–153. Chapters 15 and 16 include material from “Philosophy through Machine Learning” Teaching Philosophy 43 (1): 29–46. I am indebted to so many people. Jiaxin Wu, an educational consultant at my institution, worked with me to evaluate the effectiveness of my class. Not only did she help me reflect on and improve the structure of my class, but we also co-authored “Teaching Some Philosophical Problems through