ISSUE 150 JUNE / JULY 2022 Now Philosophy a magazine of ideas also – UKRAINE’S CONSTITUTIONAL GENIUS FOCUS ON GENDER Immanuel Kant perpetual peace (cid:129) ethics (cid:129) human dignity skepticism (cid:129) knowledge THE HOME OF EXISTENTIAL TRAINING MA in EXISTENTIAL AND HUMANIST PASTORAL CARE WWW.NSPC.ORG.UK/PASTORALCARE A spellbinding look at the philosophical and moral implications of animal dreaming “A very accessible, penetrating, thought-provoking book.” NEW SCHOOL OF PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING —Carl Safi na, author of Beyond Words 61–63 Fortune Green Road London NW6 1DR 0207 435 8067 // 0203 515 0223 @ [email protected]  nspc.org.uk This programme is quality assured by Middlesex University and you will receive a Middlesex award on successful completion. Now on Amazon We Are Stuck in the Present Knowledge The voice in our head drones on and on. Knowledge is treated as a commodity. "I think" no longer affirms that "I am." We are stuck so we keep talking. In This Self We Deserve: A Quest after Modernity, cultural theorist Fuoco B. Fann offers a fresh examination of the modern self today. Drawing from such thinkers as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Jean-François Lyotard, and Jean Baudrillard, Fann reflects anew on old philosophical questions. Who are we and what can we know? How did we get here and what can we do? "Fann’s take is one deeply entrenched in world Why you don’t have a self—and why that’s a good thing history. To understand the present, he seems to assert, readers must first expand their scope; only “A remarkable and brave exploration of then can they begin to investigate the past. A selfl essness and personhood.” dense but worthwhile inquiry into the evolution of Western thought." -Kirkus Reviews —Roshi Joan Halifax, Zen Buddhist teacher and author of Being with Dying Philosophy & Art Collaboratory www.philosophyandartcollaboratory.com Editorial The World in Kant’s Head “Our age is the age of criticism, to which everything must submit. months. And as Matt Qvortrup explains in his article, this Religion through its holiness and legislation through its majesty wasn’t Kant’s only venture into political philosophy. commonly seek to exempt themselves from it. But in this way they The other essays in our Kant special section deal with two of excite a just suspicion against themselves, and cannot lay claim to the main areas of his philosophy. First, in his Critique of Pure that unfeigned respect that reason grants only to that which has been Reason (1781), Kant theorized that there are certain facts about able to withstand its free and public examination.” the contents and structure of the inside of our heads that you can Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, 1781 establish even before you whip out a scalpel or plug in some hi- tech medical scanner. For while Kant agrees with early modern In many ways, Immanuel Kant was a man for our times. empiricists like Hume that there could not be any knowledge The bewigged eighteenth century thinker sat at home for without experience, he performs a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in years, reading and writing, taking a walk once a day, barely that he argues that experience itself, and consequently the ever travelling more than a few miles from his home town, yet content of our knowledge, is shaped by the way our human he tried to set down some universal truths about what we can minds work. In other words, the world we experience is always a know, what people are, and how we should all live. human world. For more on this see the articles by Thomas Innumerable people today, hunched in the glow of their Morrison and Joshua Mozersky. computer screens, try to do all that on Twitter, but one That was pretty clever, but if anything he surpassed it a few difference is that Kant was extremely good at it. He dug deep – years later with two books applying parallel methods to ethics. deeper than a mole in a coalmine – trying to tunnel under the These were the Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) barriers that the universe has erected to hide itself from our and the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), in which he develops understanding. An indication of his success is that his ideas the ‘categorical imperative’. He defines this in several different seem to become more, not less, relevant as the centuries go by. ways, as you’ll read in the articles by Matt McManus and Kant was born in the East Prussian city of Königsberg, and Samantha Neave, but his basic conclusion is that we have a duty lived there all his life. He worked as a private tutor for years to act as if our actions are setting a standard for the whole before finally, in middle age, gaining tenure as a lecturer at the world, and that we should therefore treat other people as ends university. He didn’t even start publishing his best stuff until he in themselves, not merely as means to our own ends. Kant’s was 57, which is a consolation to some of us, and after that the duty-based system of ethics has been massively influential on works just poured out of him. He had far too many ground- subsequent moral philosophers, and is still, after over two breaking ideas to discuss in a single article, or even in an entire centuries, one of the three main secular approaches to ethics, themed number of Philosophy Now, which is why we are along with consequentialism and virtue ethics. returning to him again in this issue. In recent years, one topic right at the centre of philosophy One example of Kant’s contemporary relevance is a very has been the nature of consciousness, and the question of how short essay he published in 1795 called Perpetual Peace. He consciousness arises in what is presumably a physical universe of started it with an anecdote about the origin of its title: causes and effects. It seems surprising that Kant hasn’t been invoked more often in those debates, given his careful investi- “Whether this satirical inscription on a Dutch innkeeper’s sign upon gation of how the human mind must be organised in order to which a burial ground was painted had for its object mankind in gen- make sense of the world. Maybe we’ll hear more of this in the eral, or the rulers of states in particular, who are insatiable of war, or future, giving us cause to wonder anew at the amazing insight of merely the philosophers who dream this sweet dream, it is not for us the old guy with the grey wig. to decide.” This is our 150th issue of Philosophy Now. It is 31 years and one pandemic since it was launched, but our aims are Hence this issue’s front cover by Steve Lillie showing Kant unchanged – to entertain and inform; to open up the long and in a cemetery. Clearly Kant didn’t agree that perpetual peace is fascinating conversation of philosophy to all comers; to enable only possible for the dead, as his essay puts forward a whole set professional philosophers to engage with thinkers in other walks of recommendations for avoiding future wars. It was a of life; and to share a few jokes with likeminded people. Thanks remarkable document for its time, and in some ways laid for supporting our efforts, and we hope you enjoy this issue. foundations for the liberal, internationalistic, rule-governed world order that has faced such a test over the last three Rick Lewis June/July 2022 ● Philosophy Now 3 Now Philosophy ISSUE 150 June/July 2022 Now Philosophy 66 43a Jerningham Road, Telegraph Hill, London SE14 5NQ United Kingdom Tel. 020 7639 7314 [email protected] philosophynow.org Editor-in-Chief Rick Lewis Editors Grant Bartley, Anja Steinbauer OR R Digital Editor Bora Dogan E P BFiolmok E Rdeitvoier wTsh oEmditaos rW Taerrteesnab Berrigt ton WEIL OIC EM DAAesnssjaiisg Stnat enGitn rEbadnaiutt eoBrra Artlleexy ,M Raicrksh L ewis, SIMONE OUSLY ST M Marketing Sue Roberts A F Administration Ewa Stacey, Alex Marsh US, LI Advertising Team Editorial & News E R Jay Sanders, Stella Ellison AU [email protected] CUS 48 UK Editorial Board 3 Editorial Rick Lewis AR M Rick Lewis, Anja Steinbauer, Bora Dogan, Grant Bartley 6 News Anja Steinbauer General Articles US Editorial Board 7 Shorts Matt Qvortrup: Wine Prof. Timothy J. Madigan (St John Fisher College), Prof. Teresa Britton 26 The Enticing Light of Progress (Eastern Illinois Univ.), Prof. Peter Critiquing Kant Helena Moradi illuminates the matter Adamson, Prof. Raymond Pfeiffer, Prof. Massimo Pigliucci (CUNY City 28 Advertising is Immoral College) 8 Kant’s Political Philosophy Peter Gildenhuys gets beyond the glitz Contributing Editors Matt Qvortrup seeks perpetual peace Alexander Razin (Moscow State Univ.) 40 Wittgenstein Plays Snooker Laura Roberts (Univ. of Queensland) 12 In Search of an Ethical Roadmap Peter Mullen breaks out a lost fragment David Boersema (Pacific University) Samantha Neave asks what it takes to be good UK Editorial Advisors Focus on Gender Piers Benn, Constantine Sandis, Gordon 16 Kant’s Theory of Human Dignity Giles, Paul Gregory, John Heawood Matt McManus and Kant explain why US Editorial Advisors 32 Gender: Biology or Social Construction? you’re intrinsically valuable Prof. Raymond Angelo Belliotti, Toni Francisco Camacho Jr weighs the evidence Vogel Carey, Prof. Harvey Siegel, 20 Did Kant Solve Skepticism? Prof. Walter Sinnott-Armstrong 36 Zhuangzi, Language and Gender Cover Image by Steve Lillie Thomas Morrison looks at appearances, and Thorsten Botz-Bornstein is at the intersection Printed by Acorn Web Offset Ltd at the world as it is in itself Loscoe Close, Normanton Ind. Estate, Reviews 24 Transcending Kant Normanton, W. Yorks WF6 1TW Worldwide newstrade distribution: Joshua Mozersky thinks it’s possible to get to 48 Book: How to Think Like a Roman Emperor Select PS (+44 1202 586848) reality itself, despite what Kant says [email protected] by Donald Robertson Australian newstrade distribution: Vincent Di Norcia hails Marcus Aurelius Ovato 26 Rodborough Road 32 49 Book: Why Does Inequality Matter? Frenchs Forest, NSW 2086 by T.M. Scanlon [email protected] C C Reviewed equitably by Peter Stone Tmhagea ozpinine idoon sn eoxtp nreescseesdsa irnil yth ries flect GS 2008 50 Book: Organicity: Entropy or Evolution the views of the editor or editorial G A by David Dobereiner board of Philosophy Now. LM Philosophy Now CHAE Reviewed vividly by Alan Shepherd is published by Anja Publications Ltd Y MI 52 Film: Good Will Hunting B ISSN 0961-5970 LS Michael Ferreira questions whether real L Subscriptions p.58 BA people can self-educate to genius level, like Shop p.59 wot Matt Damon done 4 Philosophy Now ● June/July 2022 some of our Contributors Stephen Lillie is a professional illustrator based in London. He’s a compulsive mark-maker and enjoys letting the crazy creatures that rent space in his head run riot on the page. Or, in fact, on any piece of paper that’s within reach. Despite working on literally hundreds of books and magazines, he still manages to find time for beer. When he’s not working, he’s usually playing chess, getting high on coffee, and testing out new pen-nibs. Samantha Neave is an animal lover from London. She especially loves her guinea pig, Amber, and Fly, the family collie. Recently graduated from the Open University, she’s had poetry published in the Cambridge News, and is currently focused on her E LLI writing. She is thankful to Great LI E Ormond Street Hospital for saving V TE her life. Over the years she's BY S 8 enjoyed acting, from LAMDA R VE exams to performing in plays. O C Venantius J. Pinto Regulars Fun, Poetry & Fiction a graduate of Pratt Institute living in New 42 Interview: Henk Manschot discusses the 11 Simon & Finn Melissa Felder York, sees himself as an Nietzschean life with Amirali Maleki 17 Philosopher’s Café Guto Dias artistic labourer. Of Indian descent and Goan parentage, his paintings 44 Letters to the Editor 23 A Philosophical Lunch Sarah Rochelle target meshings at the intersection 56 Street Philosopher: Kindly with Kant. 31 The Deep George Hopewell sinks into ideas of religion, philosophy and con- Seán Moran books into Kant Hotel, where 65 The Confession sciousness. He is a 7th Dan in it’s your duty to be nice to the staff Mike Mallory records immortal guilt shodō. Photo credit: Mo Riza. 60 Tallis in Wonderland: 42 Peter Stone An Unholy Trinity is an associate professor Raymond Tallis on three aspects of the self LF in political science at 62 Brief Lives: Pylyp Orlyk HIMSE Tsreinrviteys C aosl lHegeea dD oufb Dline.p Haert mcuernret ntly E Hilarius Bogbinder admires the CH and as President of the Political A constitutional innovations of an 18thC UST Science Association of Ireland. A Ukrainian philosopher-chief MO second edition of his book T A Bertrand Russell: Public 66 Philosophical Haiku: Simone Weil RE G Intellectual (co-edited by Tim E Terence Green recalls a mystical activist TH Madigan) was published last year by Tiger Bark Press. June/July 2022 ● Philosophy Now 5 (cid:129) Mendelssohn Dreams of Enlightenment (cid:129) Poll Says Public Want Vegan Cars News (cid:129) Bertrand Russell Comes to Bloomsbury News reports by Anja Steinbauer Moscow Philosopher actively be interested in buying a car free of Alexander Zipko, an 80 year old philosopher animal products. Avoiding leather seats and from Moscow, recently published a biting steering-wheel covers is relatively easy. critique of the current state of Russian intel- What is harder is that the manufacture of lectual life in the daily newspaper Nezavisi- rubber for tires involves stearic acid maya Gazeta. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, derived from animal fats, and beef tallow is Zipko was one of the architects of Pere- widely used as an industrial lubricant in the stroika, the attempt to restructure the Com- pressing of steel sheets for car bodies. munist USSR into a democratic society. After serving in the army, Zipko joined the Bertrand Russell Branches Out Institute of Economics at the Russian May 16th 2022 was Bertrand Russell’s Academy of Sciences, where he has worked 150th birthday. Russell was among the since 1972. The author of more than a foremost philosophers of the 20th century. Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) dozen books, he also taught in Japan and the His most famous work is the massive Prin- US and believes that “the Russian people cipia Mathematica, written jointly Alfred Enlightenment Dreams: exist but the Russian nation doesn’t.” Criti- North Whitehead in a valiant but unsuc- Moses Mendelssohn Exhibition cising a dominant ideology that values cessful attempt to provide a firm logical Enrolled to attend David Fränkel’s Talmu- “beautiful myths over reality” and idolises basis for mathematics. He was one of the dic seminary, 14 year old Moses “suffering”, Zipko sarcastically expresses the founders of analytic philosophy and later Mendelssohn arrived in Berlin in 1743 belief that the sense of value intrinsic to each wrote dozens of books on moral and politi- after a five day walk from his home in human life has been lost in his culture. cal topics. Bertie himself is no longer Dessau. His determination and enthusiasm around to celebrate birthdays (though he for learning stood him in good stead: he Vegan Vehicles did live to be 97), but members of the grew up to be one of the greatest thinkers Applied ethics in action? The Vegan Soci- Bertrand Russell Society carry on his of the Enlightenment. We Dreamed of ety (vegansociety.com) has published a poll legacy and discuss his writings through Nothing but Enlightenment is the name of a showing, they say, that many British conferences and journals.They held a lively new exhibition devoted to him at the drivers would be keen to drive ‘fully vegan’ celebration, complete with birthday cake, Jewish Museum in Berlin. The quote is cars, demonstrating “a strong consumer in Rochester, NY – and this year a group of taken from one of Mendelssohn’s letters. desire to remove animals from car manu- UK-based members met in London’s Not only does the exhibition contain this facturing.’’ So your cat can no longer Conway Hall to do the same. The latter and many other letters and manuscripts moonlight at the Toyota factory. 75% of gathering, organised by Tony Simpson and but also paintings and historical mementos the 750 people surveyed were in favour of Alva White, was also the launch event for such as Mendelssohn’s reading glasses. no longer using any animal products in cars the new Bloomsbury Chapter of the The curators have tried to show how or other vehicles, 70% said they would Bertrand Russell Society. Mendelssohn’s ideas are still relevant by including contemporary terminology within the explanations such as ‘networks’, ‘supply chains’, ‘fake news’ and ‘informa- tion flood’. The exhibition runs until 11th September 2022. Fun fact: there’s a tenu- ous connection between this news item and the theme of this issue. Immanuel Kant and Moses Mendelssohn entertained a long literary friendship. They had over- lapping philosophical interests and corre- sponded extensively and enthusiastically. Kant praised Mendelssohn’s book Jerusalem, which argues for freedom of Members of the newly-launched Bloomsbury Chapter of the Bertrand Russell Society, next to a conscience, calling it “an irrefutable book.” bust of Russell outside Conway Hall, London. 6 Philosophy Now l June/July 2022 Shorts Philosophy Shorts Gernot Böhme Gernot Böhme was one of Germany’s best by Matt Qvortrup known public intellectuals. After studying mathematics, physics, and philosophy at Göttingen and Hamburg Universities, he ‘More songs about Buildings and Food’ was the title of a 1978 worked as a research scientist at the Max- album by the rock band Talking Heads, about all the things rock stars Planck-Institute with the physicist Carl normally don’t sing about. Pop songs are usually about variations on Friedrich von Weizsäcker. From 1977, he the theme of love; a track like Van Morrison’s 1976 hit Cleaning taught philosophy at Darmstadt University. Windows is the odd one out. Philosophers, likewise, tend to have a narrow focus on In 2012, he described his philosophical epistemology, metaphysics and trifles like the meaning of life. But efforts over the last few decades as trying to occasionally great minds stray from their turf and write about other “reclaim what is other to reason for human matters, for example buildings (Martin Heidegger), food (Hobbes), tomato juice (Robert self understanding.” By ‘other to reason’ he Nozick) and the weather (Lucretius and Aristotle) This series of Shorts is about these meant “nature, the body, the imagination, unfamiliar themes; about the things philosophers also write about. desires, emotions’’, aspects of our humanity which he believed to have been ‘othered’ and devalued. Böhme enjoyed collaborating on work with other thinkers in diverse areas. He Philosophers on Wine died on 20 January 2022, at the age of 85. Joseph Raz The legal and political philosopher Joseph “O my soul, to thy domain gave I all did not write much about the subject, but Raz died in Charing Cross Hospital, London, wisdom to drink, all new wines”, he nevertheless liked a swig from time to on 2nd May. Born in 1939 in Haifa, Raz stud- wrote Friedrich Nietzsche in Thus Spoke time, and sent his wine merchant a ied law at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Zarathustra (p.325). Philosophers are like request “for another bottle of Pontac, After meeting his future mentor H.L.A. Hart the rest of us, and they too like the finer like the one you previously sent me” he transferred to Oxford University, where he things in life. Wine is no exception. (Hegel to Ramann, 12 October 1802). took a DPhil in philosophy. He spent most of According to Immanuel Kant (1724- A lot has been written about the dif- his life as a professor of philosophy of law at 1804), “Sparkling wine from the ferences between British empiricists and Oxford. Following Hart, Raz defended legal Canaries is very agreeable” (Critique of their speculative colleagues on the Euro- positivism, holding that there is no necessary Judgement, p.212). Perhaps too much so. pean mainland. Yet, when the English connection between law and morality. Raz According to his biographer, the Profes- philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) went a little further, claiming that the validity sor occasionally drank so much that he wrote his treatise Observations Upon the of a law never depends upon its morality. He couldn’t find his way home (Kant: A Growth of Vines and Olives (1679), he also developed a conception of perfectionist Biography, Manfred Kühn, 2001, p.129). stayed at Château Haut-Brion – then liberalism, arguing that political institutions Many philosophers have written known by the name of the proprietor, M. are justified to the degree that they support extensively on winebibbing. Plato (439- Pontac. Yes, the same man who pro- the ability of individuals to pursue their goals. 347 BCE) penned the dialogue Sympo- duced Hegel’s favourite drop. So, when it Raz received many prizes for his writings, sium, which translates as Drinking Party. comes to the really important things, the acknowledging the fact that he was one of the He also mentioned booze several times differences were negligible, most influential theorists in his field. in the Republic and was clear that we “are Of course, there is a small problem glad of any pretext of drinking… wine” with the drink of the gods: you might get Sir Alistair MacFarlane FRS (Republic 475b). sloshed. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) had an We recently heard the very sad news that a Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) answer to this, proposing that ‘Cabbage longtime Philosophy Now columnist died last devoted a whole treatise to the subject, in prevents drunkenness’ (Problemata 873a- November at the age of 90. Alistair Mac- which he mused that “wine is a defence b). Getting hammered was not some- Farlane started our Brief Lives column, of the truth and the truth a defence of the thing that troubled St Thomas Aquinas each installment of which describes the life wine” (In Vino Veritas, p.3). Maybe it was (1225-1274): “Every sin has a corre- and ideas of a past thinker. It is still a regu- because of this insight that Kierkegaard sponding contrary… thus timidity is lar feature today. Alistair was a Scottish Chardonnay, a white wine from Califor- opposed to daring… But no sin is oppo- engineer with wide-ranging intellectual nia, was named after the otherwise site to drunkenness. Therefore, drunken- interests who became a professor while austere Protestant philosopher. Other ness is not a sin” (Summa Theologica, teaching at UMIST. He had a glowing aca- thinkers have had the same honour. Q150). To this syllogism we can only demic career, including being Principal and Hegel is the name of a supposedly full- respond with “Cheers!” Vice Chancellor of Heriot-Watt University bodied and delicately fruity red wine © PROF. MATT QVORTRUP 2022 in Edinburgh, Rector of the University of bred in Weisberg in Germany. Unlike Matt Qvortrup is Professor of Political the Highlands and Islands, and Vice-Presi- Kierkegaard, G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) Science at Coventry University. dent of the Royal Society, Britain’s national academy of science. June/July 2022 l Philosophy Now 7 Kant Kant’s Political Philosophy Matt Qvortrup explains how the Enlightenment’s leading philosopher went looking for a bit of peace. The newspaper Gothanische gelernte Zeitungen was Critique of Pure Reason, it is “the first and most important con- slightly sarcastic when it wrote about Immanuel Kant cern of philosophy, once and for all, to avoid any adverse influ- in 1784, “It is a favourite idea of Herr Professor Kant ence by blocking the source of errors” (XXVII). Or writing on that the ultimate goal of the human race is the estab- the Enlightenment – when people ‘dared to follow reason’ – he lishment of a perfect constitution.” But in fairness, Kant did get says that everything ought to be liable to a rational debate (What rather carried away when he wrote about politics. “It is so sweet is Enlightenment?, 1784, p.17). The cultural situation changed to dream up state constitutions that meet the demands of reason,” when philosophy started to become critical after the Renais- he wrote almost wistfully (Conflict of the Faculties, 1794, p.159). sance. When “religion and… legislation… seek to except them- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was clearly obsessed with poli- selves from [criticism]… they awaken suspicion and cannot claim tics, especially in the later stage of his life. Yet for most students the sincere respect which reason accords to that which has been of philosophy he is not seen as a political philosopher. Hannah able to sustain the test of free and open examination” (CPR, Arendt (1906-1975) was not alone in opining that, “Unlike so XXVII). As this shows, Kant’s aim in his first Critique was not many other philosophers – Plato, Aristotle, Thomas [Aquinas], merely epistemological, or even philosophical, but aimed at “the Spinoza, Hegel, and others – he never wrote a political philoso- arrogant pretensions of the schools” and against those “who phy” (Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, 1982, p.7). This assess- claim to be the sole possessors of truth.” (XXXII). ment is not quite fair. In fact, Kant’s books The Metaphysics of Morals (1797), Towards Perpetual Peace (1795), and the shorter Practical Problems & Transcendental Truths essay The Idea of Universal History (1784) are all works of politi- Certainly Kant was a theoretical philosopher, but his three fun- cal theory. And elsewhere in his Werke there are references that damental questions posed towards the end of the Critique of Pure are overtly political and some that certainly fall under the head- Reason (B833) – “What can I know? How ought I to act? And ing of social commentary. For starters, few philosophers have what may I hope for?” – were all practical problems. written more famous political lines than “It is the spirit of trade In his three Critiques – of Pure Reason (1781), of Practical Reason [der Handelsgeist], which cannot coexist with war, which will (1786), and of Judgement (1790) – he set out so-called ‘transcen- sooner or later take hold of every people” (Towards Perpetual dental’ conditions for answering these questions. By ‘transcen- Peace, p.65). dental’ Kant means an enquiry into the conditions necessary for Even in his supposedly purely theoretical treatise the Cri- any possibility of an answer. tique of Pure Reason (1781) – a book on the limits of human He started with epistemology, the philosophy of what we can knowledge – Kant made pronouncements on political philos- know, and concluded that, among many other things, we can ophy. He also took a swipe at Plato (428-347 BC), whom he only observe the world in terms of time and space (CPR, p.71). treated none too reverentially: “The Platonic Republic, as a Unless we had mental categories of ‘space’ and ‘time’ we’d have supposedly striking example of dreamy perfection…can only no possibility of making sense of our environment at all. In the have its seat in the brain of the idle thinker.” He added polem- Critique of Practical Reason he used similar ‘transcendental’ think- ically that “it was ridiculous that the philosopher claims that a ing to ask when and under which conditions we can say that prince would never rule well if he did not partake of ideas” something is morally right. His conclusion was that we can only (Critique of Pure Reason, B373). determine if something is morally desirable if we compare it Instead of Plato’s totalitarian utopia, Kant proposed a lib- with what we consider to be good. But being fundamental, ‘the eral alternative, namely, “a constitution of the greatest human good’ cannot itself be dependent upon something else. For freedom according to laws which ensure that each freedom can instance, a purely ethical system must not promise rewards coexist with the other” (374B). Yes, it was Kant not John Stuart (Belohnungen): “it cannot set out as if to offer to bribe men to Mill (1806-1873) who first formulated the concept of the pur- pursue a good course of life”, as Kant wrote in a essay from 1794, pose of laws being to maximise individual freedom, although The End of All Things (p.521). Such a system would be based on the British philosopher was onto the same idea. As Mill wrote, a ‘hypothetical imperative’, which is “a possible action as a means “The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised to achieving something” (Metaphysics of Morals, 1797, p.4). over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is Whether this motivation is rewards in the ever-after or riches to prevent harm to others” (On Liberty, 1859, p.15). in this life, the motive is selfishness, not goodness itself, and so Politicians and others in power have always been purveyors cannot be the basis of ethics. of ‘fake news’ and ‘alternative facts’. For Kant, the aim of phi- This is important to point out, especially as some modern losophy was to counter this. As he set out in the Preface to his philosophers who claim to be Kantians are at odds with him on 8 Philosophy Now ● June/July 2022 Immanuel Kant by Gail Campbell 2022 June/July 2022 ● Philosophy Now 9 Kant this. The American philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002) is often as well as a political theorist. So not only did he pen dense trea- cited as a Kantian because in his famous book A Theory of Jus- tises on theoretical subjects, he was also a public intellectual, tice (1971) he asked that people compared their actions with a who uttered his opinion in an absolutist Prussian state where it set of ethical principles. But the principles he came up with were took courage to speak your mind. not, like Kant’s, based on purely moral ideals, but on self-inter- The Critique of Judgement (Kritik der Urteilskraft) is often seen est. Rawls asked the reader which social ideals they would come as Kant’s contribution to the philosophy of art. With its per- up with if they were behind a ‘veil of ignorance’: What sort of ceptive analyses of both the sublime and the ridiculous (it even society would you choose if you did not know whether within has a section on the philosophy of laughter) it is that, too. But that society you’re going to be rich or poor, black, or white, etc? Kant understood ‘aesthetics’ in the original Greek meaning of Rawls argued that from this ‘Original Position’, individuals the word, as ‘perception’, and the book is more about how we would agree that “those who are at the same level of talent and perceive and then make judgements about the world than about ability… should have the same prospects of success regardless beauty. And as he put it in an earlier Critique, “judgment is the of their initial place in the social system” (A Theory of Justice, ability to subsume under rules, i.e. to distinguish whether or p.63). However, these and other Rawlsian principles were explic- not something is subject to a given rule” (Critique of Pure Reason, itly based on what Kant called ‘hypothetical’ statements. You B172). The core tenet of the Critique of Judgement was that would choose based on a your realisation that you might be whenever we experience we are “compelled to ascend from the poor, for instance. For Kant, in contrast, ethical rules are ‘cate- particular to the universal” (p.15). As Kant grew older, he added gorical’, not ‘hypothetical’. This means, how I ought to act must to his transcendental prerequisites to thought the idea that we “represent an action as objectively necessary by itself, without have an inbuilt tendency to see the ‘purposiveness of nature’ reference to another end” (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of (p.27). So we seek for causes and effects, and, rising, we try to Morals, 1785, p.52). He argues that the only principle which see ultimate goals. But even here Kant could not contain him- meets this requirement is his famous Categorical Imperative, self, or conceal his near obsession with political institutions. which tells you to “act as if the maxim of your action were to Hence he concludes that “the final end of creation is such a con- become by your will a universal law of nature.” stitution… as harmonizes with what we can only definitely spec- In the Metaphysics of Morals which he built upon this Ground- ify according to laws, namely the practical reason” (p.282). work, Kant set out to apply the Categorical Imperative both to Kant was someone who made a habit of looking for laws of moral decisions in the private sphere – for example, between nature, including the laws of society. In some ways he was a bit parents and children – and to decisions made by society as a of a positivist, in that he applied natural science methods even whole. As a philosopher who lived under a (supposedly Enlight- to non-physical domains: “the relevant statistics compiled annu- ened) monarch, Kant was brave enough to argue for checks and ally in large countries demonstrate that the events that occur balances, and the then-novel view that ‘the legislator cannot be [in society] are just as much in accordance with constant laws the ruler’. He even went as far as arguing for the principle that as… the weather” (The Idea of Universal History from a Cosmopoli- “the people judge themselves through freely elected represen- tan Perspective, p.385, 1784). tatives” (Metaphysics of Morals, A171). One of the social ‘laws’ he discovered was that of ‘the demo- cratic peace’. This law is often shortened to the proposition that Laws & Peace ‘democracies do not wage war against one another’. But that is Yet Kant was not merely a philosopher who wrote about what not exactly what he wrote. Rather his contention was more rad- the world ought to be. He was also interested in how we see the ical. His view was that, present world. In modern parlance, he was a political scientist “If the consent of the citizens is required in order to decide that war should be declared (and in this [perfect democratic] constitution it cannot but be the case), nothing is more natural than that they would be very cautious in commencing such a poor game, decreeing for themselves all the calamities of war” (Towards Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch, p.75). There are few examples of countries that have allowed its cit- izens to vote on war and peace (certainly not modern-day Russia). But the two referendums in Australia on conscription during the First World War proves him right. The voters twice said no to being cannon-fodder on the fields of Flanders. Selfishness & Sociability Although Kant was inspired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778), he disagreed with him on fundamental points. That Genevan philosophe idealized the ‘noble savage’ and lamented so- called amour propre – ‘self-love’, that is, selfishness. Kant, by con- trast, made ‘vanity’ (as amour propre can also be translated) into 10 Philosophy Now ● June/July 2022