Phil 4304 Aesthetics Dr. Naugle Aristotle’s Poetics Aristotle's ideas about tragedy were recorded in his book of literary theory titled Poetics. In it, he has a great deal to say about the structure, purpose, and intended effect of tragedy. His ideas have been adopted, disputed, expanded, and discussed for several centuries now. ---The following is a summary of his basic ideas regarding the tragic hero: 1. The tragic hero is a character of noble stature and has greatness. This should be readily evident in the play. The character must occupy a "high" status position but must ALSO embody nobility and virtue as part of his/her innate character. 2. Though the tragic hero is pre-eminently great, he/she is not perfect. Otherwise, the rest of us--mere mortals--would be unable to identify with the tragic hero. We should see in him or her someone who is essentially like us, although perhaps elevated to a higher position in society. 3. The hero's downfall, therefore, is partially her/his own fault, the result of free choice, not of accident or villainy or some overriding, malignant fate. In fact, the tragedy is usually triggered by some error of judgment or some character flaw that contributes to the hero's lack of perfection noted above. This error of judgment or character flaw is known as hamartia and is usually translated as "tragic flaw" (although some scholars argue that this is a mistranslation). Often the character's hamartia involves hubris (which is defined as a sort of arrogant pride or over-confidence). 4. The hero's misfortunate is not wholly deserved. The punishment exceeds the crime. 5. The fall is not pure loss. There is some increase in awareness, some gain in self- knowledge, some discovery on the part of the tragic hero.. 6. Though it arouses solemn emotion, tragedy does not leave its audience in a state of depression. Aristotle argues that one function of tragedy is to arouse the "unhealthy" emotions of pity and fear and through a catharsis (which comes from watching the tragic hero's terrible fate) cleanse us of those emotions. It might be worth noting here that Greek drama was not considered "entertainment," pure and simple; it had a communal function--to contribute to the good health of the community. This is why dramatic performances were a part of religious festivals and community celebrations. 2 1. Topics Treated in the Poetics, Modes of Imitation, and Their differences The topics which Aristotle will treat in this work: Poetry Its species and their respective capacities The structure of plot required for a good poem The number and nature of the constituent parts of a poem Modes of Imitation: • Epic Poetry • Tragedy • Comedy • Dithyrambic poetry (usually a short poem in an inspired wild irregular strain; a statement or writing in an exalted or enthusiastic vein) • Flute-playing • Lyre-playing Differences in these modes of imitation: • By a difference of kind in their means • By differences in their objects • By differences in the manner of imitation 1I. Means of Imitation Some arts employ color, form, the voice as the means of imitation. In the above mentioned group of arts (epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, flute and lyre playing) the means of imitation, used separately or in various combinations, are the following: • Rhythm • Language • Harmony Flute and lyre playing: harmony and rhythm Dancing: rhythm alone (even by the rhythms of his attitudes represents character and what people do and suffer) Prose or verse: Language 3 Dithyrambic and nomic poetry, tragedy and comedy: rhythm, melody, and verse, either employed together, or brought it separately. 2 II. Objects of Imitation The objects represented are actions of agents who are necessarily either good men or bad men, these being the two basic distinctions in humanity since vice and virtue divide the whole of humankind. The agent of action represented falls into one of three possible categories: • Above our own level of goodness (comedy). • Beneath our own level of goodness (tragedy). • Equal to our own level of goodness. 3III. Manner of Imitation Given both the same means and the same kind of object for imitation, one may either: • Speak at one moment in narrative and at another in an assumed character (as Homer does). • Remain the same throughout without any such change • Represent the whole story dramatically as though they were actually doing the things described. Aristotle goes on to present the claims of those who allegedly invented certain of these art forms: Dorians: Tragedy and Comedy Megarians: Comedy Sicilian Megarians: Comedy Peloponnesian Dorians: Tragedy 4. The Origin of Poetry: Two Causes Rooted in Human Nature Cause #1: Imitation is natural to man from childhood, he being the most imitative creature in the world, and learns from the very first by imitation. Cause #2: It is natural for all to delight in works of imitation, a fact seen in experience, even if what is imitated is painful to see (lower animals, dead bodies, etc.). 4 Why do we delight in realistic imitation? Learning something is the human beings greatest pleasure, and learning occurs by means of imitation. Hence, imitation, which brings the delight of learning, is natural to man. In light of this natural impulse to imitate, man created poetry out of their improvisations. Poetry itself was quickly divided into two kinds according to the differences in character in the individual poets: Type #1: The graver poet represented noble actions and noble personages. Type #2: The meaner sort the ignoble actions and ignoble people. These used invectives against one another giving rise to an iambic metre and to their “iambs” or invectives. Homer is unique in that he produced not only iambic poetry of invective, but also comedy which focuses on the ridiculous. The genre of tragedy: It began with improvisations and dithyrambic poetry. Its form grew little by little in the following ways: 1. The number of actors first increased to two by Aeschylus, who cut the chorus, and made the dialogue or speaking part the leading part in the play. 2. A third actor and scenery were due to Sophocles. 3. Tragedy acquired its magnitude by discarding short stories and ludicrous diction and assumed a tone of dignity and its meter change from trochaic to iambic (the most speakable of metres as in conversation). 4. The plurality of episodes or acts. 5. The Genre of Comedy: Definition: An imitation of men worse than the average; worse not in regard to every possible fault, but worse as regards one particular kind, the RIDICULOUS, which is a specie of the UGLY. The ridiculous is a mistake or deformity 5 not productive of pain or harm to others; the mask, for example, that excites laughter, is something ugly and distored without causing pain. Development: Its successive stages are for the most part unknown. At a late point a chorus of comedians was granted by the archon (ruler) whereas before they were just volunteers. It is unknown who had the ideas of masks, prologues, a plurality of actors, etc. The invented fable or plot was originated in Sicily Crates was the first to drop the Comedy of invective and frame stories of a general and non personal nature, that is, plots or fables. Epic poetry (from epos = word, speech, poem; epic poetry = a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical hero, as in the Iliad and Odyssey) and its similarities and differences from tragedy All the parts of an epic are included in Tragedy; but those of tragedy are not all to be found in the epic. Similarity: both are imitations of serious subjects in a grand kind of verse. Differences: (1) Epic poetry is in one kind of verse and in narrative form; (2) In its length Epic poetry has no fixed limit of time, whereas tragedy is more limited (to “a single circuit of the sun”); (3) in their constituents, some being common to both, and others peculiar to tragedy. 6. Definition of Tragedy The imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories (rhythm and harmony), each kind brought it in separately in the parts of the work (verse and song); in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. 6I. Elements in a Tragedy Of the elements cited below, two arise from the means of imitation (melody and diction), one from the manner (spectacle) and three from the objects of imitation (thought, character, fable?). • Spectacle: stage appearance of the actors, some part of the whole (?) • Melody and diction: melody = what is too completely understood to require explanation; diction = the composition of the verses 6 • Thought: shown in all they say when proving a particular point, or it may be enunciating a general truth. • Character: what makes us ascribe moral qualities to the agents. • Fable or Plot: the combination of the incidents or things done in the story. 6II. The Parts of Tragedy in the Order of Importance #1: Plot: the combination of incidents of the story. Tragedy is essentially an imitation not of persons but of action and life, of happiness and misery which takes the form of action. The end for which we live is a certain kind of activity, and in our actions reside happiness or misery. Actors in a play do not act to portray characters, but include characters for the sake of action. WHAT IS REALLY IMPORTANT IS THE IMITATION OF HAPPINESS OR MISERY PER SE. It is the action in a tragedy, its fable or plot that is the end and purpose of tragedy; and the end is everywhere the chief thing. Tragedy is possible without character, diction, thought, but not without plot. Hence, The first essential, the life and soul of tragedy is the plot, an imitation of action, and its mainly for the sake of action that it imitates the personal agents or characters. #2: Character: that which reveals the moral purpose of agents, that is the sort of thing they seek or avoid, where that is not obvious. #3: Thought: the power of saying whatever can be said, or what is appropriate to the occasion (the arts of politics and rhetoric). Thought is shown in all they say when proving or disproving some particular point, or enunciating some universal proposition. #4: Diction: the expression of their thoughts in words #5: Melody: the greatest pleasurable accessories of tragedy. #6: Spectacle: though an attraction, is the least artistic of all the parts, and has least to do with the art of poetry. 7. The Proper Construction of the Fable or Plot The magnitude (size, length) of a tragedy expressed in two characteristics: 1. As a whole of some magnitude, it has a beginning, middle, and an end. 7 Beginning: it is not after anything else, and has something else after it. Middle: that which by nature is after one thing and before another. End: that which is naturally after something else, as its necessary or usual consequent, and with nothing else after it. A well constructed plot cannot begin or end just anywhere, but must be as described above; this too is necessary for the sake of beauty, for the beautiful, and every whole made up of parts, must present a certain order in its arrangement of its parts. They must be of a certain acceptable size as well. 2. The plot of a tragedy must be of some length, not too small, and not too large, but of a length to be taken in by memory. Beauty is a matter of size and order, and therefore is impossible if its too small (and becomes indistinct) or too large (1000 miles long) and its unity and wholeness is lost to the viewer. As a beautiful whole made up of parts must be of some size, but a size to be taken in by the eye, so a story or plot must be of some length, but of a length to be taken in by memory. Here is Aristotle’s general rule regarding the magnitude or size of a tragedy: A length which allows the hero passing a series of probable or necessary stages from misfortune to happiness, or from happiness to misfortune. 8. The Unity of Plot What unity of plot is not: It is not simply the action of one man to which an infinity of things may fall, some of which it is impossible to reduce to unity; likewise there are many actions of one man which cannot be made to form one action. What unity of plot is: With Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey as an example, the unity of plot involves the following. Just as in the other imitative arts one imitation is always of one thing, so in poetry the story, as an imitation of action, must represent one action, a complete whole, with its several incidents so closely connected that the transposal or withdrawal of any one of them will disjoin and dislocate the whole. For that which makes no perceptible difference by its presence or absence is no real part of the whole. 8 9. The Distinction Between Historian and Poet The function of the poet is to describe not the thing that has happened, but a kind of thing that might happen, that is, what is possible as being probable or necessary. The distinction between historian and poet is not the the former’s prose, and the latter’s verse, but that the historian describes the thing that has been, and the poet a kind of thing that might be. Poetry is more philosophic and of graver import than history, since poetry’s statement’s are universals, rather than singulars (particulars). A universal statement has to do with what such a kind of man will probably or necessarily do or say, which is the aim of poetry; a singular statement has to do with with what someone (Alcibiades) did or had done to him. The poet must be more the poet of his stories or plots than his verses inasmuch as he is a poet by virtue of the imitative element in his work, and it is actions that he imitates. If he takes his subject from history, he is still a poet, for events in history may very well be in the probable and possible order of things, and in respect of such things he is their poet. Episodic action and plots are the worst, and a plot is episodic when there is neither probability or necessity in the sequence of its episodes. Tragedy is an imitation of a complete (not episodic) action and also of events arousing pity and fear. Such events have the greatest impact when unexpected, and at the same time in consequence of another action or event (rather than by chance). But even matters of chance may seem marvelous if there is an appearance of design in them. 10. Simple and Complex Plots Since actions are either simple or complex, so also are plots. Simple plots: The action proceeding in the way defined as one continuous whole, when the change in the hero’s fortunes takes place without Peripety (= a sudden or unexpected reversal of circumstances or situation, esp. in a literary work) or Discovery. Complex plots: when the change in the hero’s fortunes takes place with Peripety or Discovery. 11. The Definitions of Peripety, Discovery and Suffering Peripety: 9 The change from one state of things within the play to its opposite, in the probable or necessary sequence of events. Discovery: A change from ignorance to knowledge, and thus to either love or hate, in the personages marked for good or evil fortune. The finest form of discovery is one attended or accompanied by Peripeties. This combination of Discovery and Peripety will arouse either pity or fear, actions of that nature being what Tragedy is assumed to represent; and its will serve to bring about the happy or unhappy ending. Suffering: An action of a destructive or painful nature, such as murders on the stage, woundings, etc. 12. The Parts of Tragedy From the Point of View of Quantity (or the separate sections into which it is divided) Prologue: All that precedes the Parode of the chorus Episode: all that comes in between the two whole choral songs Exode: All that follows after the last choral song Choral Portion: Parode: the whole first statement of the chorus Stasimon: a song of the chorus without anapaests (a metrical foot consisting of two short syllables followed by one long syllable or of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable) or trochees (a metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by one short syllable, or of one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable). Songs from the Stage: Commoe: a lamentation sung by chorus and actor in concert. 13. What is the Poet to Aim At and What is the Poet to Avoid in Constructing His Tragedies? What is the Poet to Aim At? 10 The plot must be complex, not simple. It must imitate actions arousing pity and fear. What is the Poet to Avoid? 1. A good man must not be seen passing from happiness to misery. This is not fear inspiring or piteous, but simply odious to us. 2. A bad man must not be seen passing from misery to happiness. This is the most untragic that can be; it has none of the elements of tragedy; it does not appeal to human feeling in us, or to our pity, or to our fears. 3. An extremely bad man must not be seen falling from happiness into misery. This plot may arouse human feeling, but neither fear nor pity. Pity is occasioned by undeserved misfortune, and fear by that like one of ourselves. 4. The intermediate kind of personage: A man not pre-eminently virtuous or just, whose misfortune is brough upon him not by vice or depravity, but by some error of judgment. The Perfect Plot: 1. Must have a single and not a double issue. 2. The change in the hero’s fortunes must be not from misery to happiness, but from happiness to misery. 3 The cause of the shift must lie not in any depravity, but is some great error on he hero’s part as the agent or sufferer of some deed of horror. 14. How The Tragic Fear and Pity May Be Aroused By spectacle: This method is less artistic and requires extraneous aid. Those who make use of spectacle put before us that which is monstrous and not productive of fear. They are wholly out of touch with tragedy.