i Examining the Interactive Effects of Mental Toughness, Self- Regulated Training Behaviors, and Personality in Swimming Ph.D. Thesis Ahmad Salman Alqallaf Thesis submitted to Bangor University in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the School of Sport, Health, and Exercise Sciences. 2016 i Contents Author’s Declaration 01 Acknowledgements 04 Thesis Abstract 05 Chapter 1: General Introduction 07 Mental Toughness 08 Qualitative research 09 Development of MT 10 Maintenance of MT 13 Coach perceptions of development 14 Quantitative research in MT 17 MT and performance 20 Limitations of qualitative and quantitative research 21 Informant assessment of MT 22 Training behaviours and self-regulation 25 Self-regulation of emotions 28 Self-regulation of behaviour 29 Personality and performance 33 Purpose of the Thesis 40 Chapter 2: The effects of punishment and reward sensitivities on MT and performance in swimming 42 Abstract 43 Introduction 44 Method 48 Results 50 ii Discussion 53 Method 55 Results 55 General Discussion 57 Chapter 3: The mediating role of training behaviours on self-report MT and MT behaviour in swimming 62 Abstract 63 Introduction 64 Method 69 Results 72 Discussion 80 Chapter 4: Examining the relationship between personality and MT upon training behaviours and MT behaviour in swimming 85 Abstract 86 Introduction 87 Method 93 Results 96 Discussion 109 Chapter 5: General Discussion 115 Overview of the major thesis findings 116 Self-presentation issues and MT 119 Punishment and reward sensitivities 120 Training behaviours and MT 121 Personality 125 Applied implications 128 iii Conclusion 130 Limitations 131 Strengths 132 Future Directions 134 Summary 136 References 137 Appendix 151 - Chapter 2 (A) The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire–Revised Short version (EPQR-S; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) 152 - Chapter 2 (B) Swimming Mental Toughness Inventory (SMTI) 154 - Chapter 2 (C) Performance measure form 155 - Chapter 3 (D) Swimming Mental Toughness Inventory (SMTI) 157 - Chapter 3 (E) Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A; Golby et al., 2007) 158 - Chapter 3 (F) Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ; Sheard et al., 2009) 159 - Chapter 3 (G) Mental Toughness Index (MTI; Gucciardi et al., 2014) 160 - Chapter 3 (H) Self-Rated Training Behaviours (SRTB) 161 - Chapter 3 (I) Coach-Rated Training Behaviours (CRTB) 162 - Chapter 4 (J) Coach-Rated Training Behaviours (CRTB) Distractibility (CRD), and Coping with Adversity (CWA) 163 1 Author’s Declaration Details of the Work I hereby agree to deposit the following item in the digital repository maintained by Bangor University and/or in any other repository authorized for use by Bangor University. 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That I will indemnify and keep indemnified Bangor University and the National Library of Wales from and against any loss, liability, claim or damage, including without limitation any related legal fees and court costs (on a full indemnity bases), related to any breach by myself of any term of this agreement. Signature: ……………………………………………………… Date : ……………………………………………. 4 Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to Bangor University which is deemed one of the most reputable, prestigious and well-known Universities across the globe. I will never forget my time here as a PhD student. I would also like extend my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor’s Dr Stuart Beattie and Professor Lew Hardy who have supported and guided me throughout my PhD. I am extremely thankful for their guidance, unquestionable support, invaluable and constructive feedback and friendly advice over the past three years. I wish to remain friends and a colleague for many more years to come. I am proud to express special thanks to my loving, caring and supportive parents along with my family and friends for sparing no efforts in motivating and encouraging me throughout my study. Thanks to my three sons Salman, Hassan and Hussain. Finally, and to my wife Manar; my deepest gratitude. Signed: AHMAD ALQALLAF. 5 Thesis Abstract The thesis contains five chapters that attempt to extend our understanding of Mental Toughness (MT) in relation to personality, swimming performance, training behaviours and MT behaviours. The thesis focuses predominantly on swimming environments, which can be very stressful and often require athletes to train long hours and perform under intense pressure. As such, it provides a useful context to investigate MT. Chapter 1 critically reviews some of the previous MT research in the domains of qualitative research and quantitative research. The Chapter introduces personality as a possible trait explanation of MT and proposes that, even though training behaviours has been indicated as an important source of MT, it is yet relatively unexplored. The Chapter then sets out a series of questions upon which the thesis is based. Chapter 2 focused on three aims. First, an informant rating of MT in swimming was developed (Coach Rated MT). Second, to replicate previous findings (Hardy, Bell, & Beattie, 2014), revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (McNaughton & Gray, 2000) was used to predict coach rated MT behaviour. Our findings supported that of Hardy et al. (2014), that is, when reward sensitivity is low, increasing levels of punishment sensitivity positively related to MT behaviour; but when reward sensitivity was high, increasing levels of punishment sensitivity negatively relate to MT behaviour. Third, the thesis set out to investigate whether punishment and reward sensitivities could actually predict swimming performance. Our findings showed there was a significant punishment sensitivity and reward sensitivity interaction. That is, when reward sensitivity was low, as punishment sensitivity increased, swimming times improved. However, with high reward sensitivity as punishment sensitivity increased, swimming times reduced. However, findings showed that there was no significant correlation between coach assessed MT and actual swimming performance. 6 Chapter 3 examined the mediating role of training behaviours on self-report MT and MT behaviour in swimming. In this chapter swimmers completed three self-report MT measurements; the Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A; Golby, Sheard, & van Wersch, 2007); the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ; Sheard, Golby, Wersch, 2009); and the Mental Toughness Index (MTI; Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, &Temby, 2014). Swimmers and coaches also completed a measure of Self-Regulated Training Behaviours (SRTB) and the coach completed the Swimming MT Inventory (SMTI) to assess MT behaviour. Findings supported our hypothesis that self-regulated training behaviours (coach and self-rated) had a positive relationship with coach and self-rated MT. Further, training behaviours mediated the relationship between self-report MT and coach rated MT behaviour. Chapter 4, examined three main personality profiles of psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism in relation to MT and training behaviours. To assess the swimmer’s personality profiles we utilized the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire–Revised Short version (EPQR-S; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985). Coaches completed the MT behaviour measure (CRTB) and the Quality of Training Inventory consisting of distractibility and coping with adversity. Findings revealed that swimmers characterized by high levels of both psychoticism and MT skills displayed higher levels of training and MT behaviours. That is, self-rated MT only had a positive relationship with training and MT behaviour when psychoticism was high. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis. More specifically, the chapter provides a summary and integrated discussion of the thesis findings, implications, limitations, strengths and avenues for future research.