This page intentionally left blank Copyright © 2005, 2001, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2718-9 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com “Every Scientific Advance is an Advance in Method. The Invention of a New Specialized Laboratory Procedure Brings About Rapid Conquests in New Fields of Science and Technology. Finally, it Exhausts Itself and is Replaced by a Still More Practical Method” L. Zechmeister and L. Von Cholnoky This page intentionally left blank Preface to the Second Edition Modern Pharmaceutical Drug Analysis essentially involves as a necessary integral component even greater horizons than the actual prevalent critical analysis of not only the active pharmaceutical substances but also the secondary pharmaceutical product(s) i.e., the dosage forms having either single or multi-component formulated product. The fundamental reasons for this sudden legitimate surge in the newer evolving methodologies in the ‘analysis of drug substances’ are perhaps due to the tremendous growth in the progress of ‘medicinal chemistry’ towards achieving one ultimate objective which is to obtain ‘better drugs for a better world’. With the advent of computer-aided-drug modeling (CADM) the critical, scientific and faster approach to newer drug entities based on the biologically active prototypes, combinatorial chemis- try, chiral chemistry and biotechnology has paved the way towards more specific, potent and above all less toxic ‘drugs’ to improve the ultimate quality of life in humans. Keeping in view the above astronomical growth in the design of complicated, specific and highly active drug molecules an equally viable, rigorous, accurate and precise analytical methods have been evolved with the passage of time which have now occupied pivotal and vital positions in most of the Official Compendia viz., USP, BP, Int.P., Eur. P, IP etc., for the analysis of such compounds both in pure and dosage forms. The articulated developments in the fields of science and technology being utilized as on date, amalgamated with relatively stringent new regulations, namely: Federal Drug Authority (FDA); International Conference on Harmonization (ICH); Current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP); Pre-Approval Inspections (PAIs) and the like are now serving as a ‘legal binding’ specifically for the pharmaceutical drug analysis even much more complicated in comparison to the situation pre- vailing almost two decades ago. The present revised textbook on ‘Pharmaceutical Drug Analysis’ caters for the much needed handbook and reference book, which is absolutely current with regard to the esteemed philosophy of analytical chemistry, an obvious solid support towards drug discovery, development, stability stud- ies, bioavailability and pharmacokinetic studies, and above all the quality assurance of pure drugs together with their respective dosage forms. The thirty-two different chapters meticulously divided into six parts invariably covers up analytical techniques being used in most of the Official Compendia. Each chapter categorically and explicitly deals with the introduction, theoretical aspect(s), instrumentation, typical examples of pharmaceutical analysis and cognate assays. The textbook on ‘Pharmaceutical Drug Analysis’ would enormously serve the undergradu- ates, postgraduates, researchers, analytical chemists working in the Quality Assurance Laborato- ries, new drug development, production and control, teaching, or regulatory authorities. ASHUTOSH KAR This page intentionally left blank Preface to the First Edition The ever expanding and broad horizon of Pharmaceutical Sciences invariably emphasizes one cardi- nal aspect that basically they are nothing but ‘Applied Sciences.’ With the advent of newer drug molecules either partially synthesized, totally synthesized or isolated from naturally occurring mi- crobial and plant products—it has become absolutely necessary to ascertain and examine critically their physical characteristics, chemical equivalence, chemical impurities and their prescribed limits, degradation of products, metabolites and above all their biological features. All these salient features of a ‘drug’ help a researcher not only in planning a precise experimental design but also in the interpretation of data in a logical and scientific manner. Pharmaceutical scientists ought to have a good command over the wide-spectrum of chemical analysis so as to achieve completeness in their scientific pursuit of knowledge. Unfortunately, such information is either found scattered in various available literatures or appears as an extremely specific work on a rather scanty and limited subject area. The main objective of ‘Pharmaceutical Drug Analysis’ is to offer not only a ready reference handy textbook but also an intermediate level of coverage for the convenient analysis of pure pharmaceutical substances and their respective dosage forms wherever applicable. The present copious textual compilation of information is solely intended to narrow down the apparently wide gap existing between the available basic texts and the extremely specific research papers from various scientific journals. The contents of this textbook have been meticulously designed to provide fundamentals of various disciplines embodying pharmaceutical drug analysis specifically for the under-graduate students. It will also be useful to the graduate students studying modern methods of pharmaceutical analysis to a great extent. Particular emphasis has been laid on the pharmaceutical substances that are specially found in the Official Compendia. It will also cater to scientists and investigators, working in other fields of pharmaceutical sciences who wish to update their personal wealth of knowledge and understanding of the intricacies of modern methods of Pharmaceutical Drug Analysis. Enough literature have been cited at the end of each chapter under ‘Recommended Readings’ so as to enable the reader to follow up a particular topic with ease. Part—I has three chapters that exclusively deal with ‘General Aspects’ of pharmaceutical analysis. Chapter 1 focuses on the pharmaceutical chemicals and their respective purity and management. Critical information with regard to description of the finished product, sampling procedures, bioavailability, identification tests, physical constants and miscellaneous characteristics, such as : ash values, loss on drying, clarity and color of solution, specific tests, limit tests of metallic and non-metallic impurities, limits of moisture content, volatile and non-volatile matter and lastly residue on ignition have also been dealt with. Each section provides adequate procedural details supported by ample typical examples from the Official Compendia. Chapter 2 embraces the theory and technique of quantitative analysis with specific emphasis on volumetric analysis, volumetric apparatus, their specifications, standardization and utility. It also includes biomedical analytical chemistry, colorimetric assays, theory and assay of biochemicals, such as : urea, bilirubin, cholesterol; and enzymatic assays, such as alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, salient features of radioimmunoassay and automated methods of chemical analysis. Chapter 3 provides special emphasis on errors in pharmaceutical analysis and their statistical validation. The first aspect is related to errors in pharmaceutical analysis and embodies classification of errors, accuracy, precision and makes