24 Introduction reality's limiting the power of rhetoric is what underlies Socrates' obser_ vation in the Apology that one way to persuade his audience would be eas- ier than another (even though that other is true). The existing beliefs that are crucial in these respects involve people's ordering of the human goods (such as the relative worth of money, health, fame, virtue, knowledge), their views of what beings are higher than human beings and their affairs (the divine, god, or gods), and the relationships between these two sets of Phaedrus beliefs. In only one day, even the most skilled rhetor can hardly succeed in persuading people contrary to powerfully and deeply held beliefs. But could not rhetoric have substantially greater power if persuasion is exerted over a much longer period of time? Could a long-term rhetorical effort over many generations bring about much greater effects through profoundly changing people's opinions and beliefs? The example of how later Greek thinkers understood Homer's influence illustrates the possi- bility of seriously entertaining such an enterprise. Socrates, for instance, ORAMATIS PERSONAE: SOCRATES, PHAEDRUS. speaks of "praisers of Homer who say that this poet educated Greece."" Plato, I suggest, intends just such an educational enterprise, under the di- '127. SOCRATES: Phaedrus' my friend! Where to? And from where? PHAEDRUS: From Lysias, Cephalus's son? Socrates, and I am going rection, of course, of Socratic or Platonic philosophy. for a walk around outside the wall; for I spent a long time there, sit- The Corgias makes clear the political and moral need for such a project ting around since early morning. In obedience' to your comrade and of reforming prevailing beliefs and limns key features of the substance of mine, Acumenus,' I take walks along the roads; for he says they are preferable ones. The Phaedrlls explores how to understand what can make more invigorating than those in colonnades. rhetoric effective and hence how a philosophic art of rhetoric could be de- 117b veloped. The Phaedrlls culminates in a discussion of writing because writ- SOC.: What he says, comrade, is fine. But then Lysias was in town, it ing appears indispensable if an enterprise is to pursue a determined course would appear? PHAE.: Yes, at Epicrates', in that house there, of Morychus's.' near the over many generations. Thus Plato sketches the pOSSibility of a prOlonged rhetorical project conducted by philosophy for its own benefit as well as Olympian's temple. for that of political society. A philosophically inspired and directed rhetoric of this sort would be a political philosophy, which, for reasons that both 1. Phaedrusappears in two other Platonic dialogues. He is the first speaker in the Symposilwl, and indeed, together with Eryximachus, the proximate cause of the whole evening's theme the Corgias and the Phaedrus help to clarify, may sometimes resemble myth- of speeches on erotic love. With Eryximachus and Andron son of Androtion (see Gorgias ology or theology. The thoughtful reader of the Corgias will not likely be 4 7c), he appears among those listening to the Sophist Hippias in the Protagoras. Little else is k8nown of the historical Phaedrus. The dramatic date of the Symposium is 416, of the Pro/ago- surprised to read in Plato's last and longest dialogue that the Athenian ras about 43 . Lysias returned to Athens in 412-411 (at which time lsocrates would have been 2 Stranger presents an extensive theology in the context of discussing penal twenty-four years old); probably we should think of this dialogue as occurring about then. legislation.'" , 2. The conversation presented in the Republic takes place at Cephal us's house in the Piraeus, the port belonging to Athens and connected to the central city by the long walls. His two sons were Polemarchus and Lysias, the famous Attic rhetor, some thirty of whose speeches have been preserved. Both are present in the Republic, but of the two, only Polemarchus speaks. 3. The passive participle of pei/llein, to persuade, conveys the idea "being persuaded by" or 42. Plato, Republic lo.606e. 43. Plato, The LAws 10. "obeying." 4. Acumenus, a doctor, is the father of Eryximachus, also a doctor. 5. Morychus was something of a byword in comedies (e.g., Aristophanes, Acllarnians 887) for his luxurious living. 25 26 Phaedrus Phaedrus 27 SOC.: So what, then, was the pastime? Or is it clear that Lysias was 2280 pose that what Lysias, the most terribly clever at writing of the men feasting you with speeches?" of today, has composed at leisure over much time, I, a mere layman,12 PHAE.: You will learn, if you have the leisure to listen as you walk on. shall recollect in a manner worthy of him? Far from it. And yet I should soc.: What then? Do you not suppose that I would deem it, with Pin- wish for this rather than that much gold should become mine. dar, a "more important affair than business"7 to hear what your and soc. Phaedrus, if I fail to know my Phaedrus, I shall forget even my- Lysias's pastime was? self. But neither of these is the case. Well do I know that, when that 227c PHAE.: Go ahead, then! man heard Lysias's speech, he didn't hear it only once but often or- soc.: You may speak. dered him repeatedly to speak, and he obeyed eagerly. And even 228b PHAE.: And indeed, Socrates, the hearing is befitting for you at least; these things were not sufficient for him, but he ended up getting hold for actually the speech that we were passing our time on was, in I of the book" and looked over those things which he most desired; know not what way, erotic· For Lysias has written about an attempt and sitting around doing this since early morning, he tired of it and being made on one of the beautiful ones;' but not by a lover-indeed went for a walk-knowing the speech by heart, as I think, by the this very thing is what he has put with subtle refinement. For he says dog,J4 unless it is quite long indeed. And he proceeded outside the that one must gratify the nonlover rather than the lover. wall so as to practice. Encountering the one who is sick15 over hear- soc.: Nobly born man! Would that he had written that one must do ing speeches, he saw-yes, he saw-and was pleased that he should it for the poor man rather than the rich, and for the older rather than 22& have the fellow Corybantic reveler,16 and he ordered him to go ahead. 227d the younger, and whatever other things pertain to me and to most of And when the lover of speeches begged him to speak, he played hard us! Then indeed the speeches would be urbane and beneficial to the to get as if not desiring to speak. But he was going to end up speak- people. As it is, I for one have conceived such a desire to hear, that if ing-even by force, if someone would not willingly listen. So then, you proceeded to take your walk to Megara 10 and, following Herod- Phaedrus, beg him to do right now what he will do presently at all icus, II you advanced to the wall and went back again, I would not get events. left behind you. PHAE.: Truly the strongest thing by far for me is to speak in whatever PHAE.: What are you saying, Socrates, you best of men? Do you sup- way I can, since you seem to me someone who will not at all let me go before I speak in some way or other. 6. Note the similar suggestion (that speeches are feasts) at the beginning of the Gorgias. soc.: Quite truly indeed do I seem so to you! 7· The quotation is from Isthmian 1. The poet declares his intention to interrupt his business 22&1 PHAE.: So that's what I'll do. For really, Socrates, it's above all that I of writing a poem in honor of the island of Delos, sacred to Apollo, in order to perform his patriotic duty of celebrating a local winner of the Isthmian Games. He begins: "My mother, have not thoroughly learned the words; but the thought of nearly all Thebes of the golden shield, I shall make your affair more important even than business." the respects in which he said that the things pertaining to the lover The word translated "business" is ascholia, "lack of leisure" (used also in Gorgias 45&) differ from those pertaining to the nonlover-I shall go through the 8. Socrates, though usually proclaiming his lack of knowledge, sometimes claims expertise regarding erOs, perhaps most notably at Symposium 177d-e. I have translated erOs and re- chief points of each in succession, beginning with the first. lated words with '10ve" and related words; but "love" must also be used sometimes for soc.: When you've first shown, friend," what it is that you have in words with the root phi/-, like "love of wisdom" for philosophia. I have indicated such cases in the notes. 9· Kalos means "beautiful," "noble," "fine." I have used all three translations according to 12. Idiolis: a private man, layman, amateur, as compared to a (public) expert or profes- context. I have translated gennaios "nobly born" to preserve its etymological connection sional. with birth, generation, descent. 13. Or one couId translate "scroll," which makes Socrates' remark at 22&1 more pointed. 10. Megara, adjacent to Attica and allied with SpMta, figured prominently in events lead- 14. At Corgias 482b, Socrates (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0)that this odd oath refers to an Egyptian god. ing to the outbreak of the Peioponnesian War. 15. The metaphor of sickness for overpowering erotic desire is used often in what follows. 11. Not Gorgias'S brother, but according to Plato's Protagoras (Protagoras 316d-e) a con- So too at Symposium 207a-b, Diotima links being sick and being erotically disposed. temporary Sophist from Megara who hid his wisdom under the guise of the art of gym- 16. A Corybant is a dancer in an ecstatic mystery rite. Socrates makes a remarkable compar- nastic or physical training. In the Republic 406a-b he is blamed for too sophisticated a med- ison of his own hearing of certain arguments to Corybantes' hearing of flutes, at (rito 54d. icine combined with gymnastic that excessively prolongs life in sickness. 17. More literally, "friendship." Socrates addresses Phaed.rus here with the abstract noun. Phaedrus 29 28 Phaedrus soc.: Well if, like the wise, I distrusted it, I would not be out of your left hand under your cloak; for I am guessing that you have the speech itself. And if this is so, think about me in this way: that while place.23 In that case, playing the sophist I would assert that Boreas's 22Se Ii0velS you by all means, when Lysias too is present, it has not seemed wind hurled her down from the nearby rocks where she was playing with Pharmaceia, and thus she ended up said to have been snatched best" at all to provide myself for you to practice on. But come, show! up by Boreas-or else from the Areopagus;24 for this account in tum PHAE.: Stop! You have driven me away from the hope I had that I 229d is also told, that she was snatched away from there, not from here. should do my gymnastic exercise on you. But where do you wish us to sit down and read? But l, Phaedrus, consider such things in other respects graceful, but belonging to a man who is too terribly clever, laborious, and not al- 229. soc.: Let us turn aside right there and go along the llissus, and then together fortunate, if only because it is necessary for him after this to we shall sit down in a quiet spot wherever it seems good. straighten out the form of the Hippocentaurs, and next that of the PHAE.: Good timing, it seems, that I happened to be barefoot; you, of Chimera; and then in will stream a mob of such Gorgons and Pega- course, always are. So it's very easy for us to go along the little brook, suses and multitudes of other inconceivable things and bizarre cu- getting our feet wet-and not unpleasant, especially at this season of 22ge the year and hour of the day. riosities of certain natures of which marvels are told.25 If someone, distrusting these, will make each thing approach near to what's soc.: Go ahead now, and at the same time look for where we shall sit down. likely, as if using a certain rude wisdom, he will stand in need of much leisure. But I do not at all have leisure for these things; and the PHAE.: Now, do you see that very tall plane tree?'" soc.: Yes. Well? cause of it, my friend, is this. I am not yet able, according to the Del- phic inscription, to know myself;26 it appears to me laughable indeed 229b PHAE.: There is shade there, and a measured breeze, and grass to sit on or, if we should wish, to lie down on. 230. for one who is still ignorant of this to examine alien things. Where- soc.: You may go ahead. fore, bidding farewe1l2' to these things and being persuaded by what is conventionally believed about them, as I was saying just now I PHAE.: Tell me, Socrates, is it not from somewhere here along the llis- examine not them but myself, whether I happen to be some wild an- sus that Boreas is said to have snatched away Oreithyia?21 soc.: He is said to have. imal more multiply twisted and filled with desire than Typhon,>' or PHAE.: Well now, isn't it right here? Certainly the waters appear grace- ful, pure, and clear, and suitable for maidens to play beside them. 23. Atopos, literally out of place or without a place; elsewhere I have sometimes translated 229c soc.: No; but some four or six hundred yards" farther down, where it "strange" or ''bizarre.'' 24. The Areopagus, or "hill of Ares (the god of war)," was a small hill on which sat the we cross over toward the shrine in Agra. And a certain altar of Boreas council and court of elders. is there at that spot. 25. A Hippocentaur has the head, torso, and arms of a man joined to a horse's body. The Chimera combined the forms of lion, goat, and dragon. The Gorgons were three women with PHAE.: I've never quite noticed. But tell me, by Zeus, Socrates: are you snakes in place of hair. Pegasus was a winged horse that sprang up either from the blood of persuaded that this mythical speech is true? Medusa (the most famous of the Gorgons) or from the stump of her neck after she was de- capitated by Perseus. The hero Bellerophon rode on Pegasus in order to kill the Chimera. 18. Here Socrates uses the verb phifein, related to philos (friend), not the verb eran. See first 26. This inscription (gramma) "Know thyself!" was, along with "Nothing too much," per- note at 227c and Corgins 51)C and second note there. haps the best known at Delphi. 19· This phrase is also used to speak of official decrees of the assembly. One could trans- 27. The Greek uses the verb chaireill, connected to words translated "gratify" and "grace- late, "It has not at all been decreed." See Corgins 466c and note there. ful" previously. See Corgias 505d and 505c and notes there. 20. Given the Greek penchant for wordplay, it may be worth noting that "plane tree" trans- 28. This giant, perhaps the most frightening monster found in Greek myths, had enormous lates piatallos. strength and the head of a dragon and of one hundred snakes, all flashing fire; he was the last child of Earth, born after Zeus had overthrown the Titans and established his rule. Zeus had 21. Boreas is the North Wind. Oreithyia was daughter to Erechtheus, a mythical king of Athens. to defeat him and cast him underground to secure his own rule and the present order as we 22. Literally, two or three stadia. Agra is a deme or political subdivision of Attica. Herodotus know it. (Hesiod, Theogony 820-85; Homer mad 2.pb). The word atuphos, translated "without 7.189 relates that the shrine to Boreas was built on the Uissus after the North Wind de- arrogance" at the end of the sentence, is cognate with the name for this giant. De Vries iden- tifies this as "the first appearance of the etymological fancy which is rife in the Phaedrus." stroyed the Persian fleet, in response to prayers by the Athenians to Boreas and Oreithyia. 30 Phaedrus Phaedrus 3 ' a gentler and simpler animal, having by nature a share in a certain PHAE.: Listen then! lot that is divine and without arrogance. But comrade, amidst the speeches-wasn't this the tree to which you were leading us? You know about my affairs, and you have heard what, these things 230b PHAE.: Yes indeed, this is the one. having come to be, I believe to be advantageous for us. And I deem soc.: By Hera,29 the resting place is beautiful, to be sure! This plane it fitting to be spared the misfortune of not getting what I ask for on 231. tree is especially wide-spreading and tall, and the height and shade this account, that I do not happen to be in love with you33 For those of the willow are altogether beautiful, and as its flowering is reach_ people, when they have ceased from desire, repent the benefactions ing its peak, it makes the place as sweet smelling as can be; and in they have conferred; but for these there is no time in which it is to be addition the stream flows most gracefully under the plane tree with expected that they should have second thoughts. For they confer especially cool water, by the testimony of my foot. It seems likely, benefactions in proportion to their own power, not from necessity from the maidens and other statues, to be the shrine of certain nymphs but voluntarily, as they have best taken counsel regarding their own 230c and of Achelous.30 And further, if you wish, how lovely and particu- concerns. Furthermore, lovers examine both those of their affairs that larly sweet is the fragrant good breeze of the place! It responds with have been badly managed on account of love and the benefactions a summery and clear echo to the chorus of cicadas. And the most they have conferred, and adding to the account the toils they have subtle refinement of all is the grass, because it is naturally sufficient, had, they consider they have long ago paid back to the beloveds the 23lb on a gentle slope, for someone laying down his head to be in an al- favor in its worth. But nonlovers cannot on this account allege as a together beautiful situation. So that your work of guiding strangers, pretext the neglect of their own concerns, nor calculate past toils, nor Phaedrus my friend, has been the best. blame differences with relatives on this; so that, with such great evils PHAE.: But you, you amazing man, appear to be someone very much stripped away, nothing remains but eagerly to do whatever they out of place! For as you say, you absolutely seem like some stranger think will provide gratification when they have done it. Furthermore, 230d on a guided tour and not one of the country. To such an extent do you if it is worthwhile to make much of lovers on this account, that they 23lc not go away from horne, neither out of the town nor beyond the claim they are most friendly" to the ones they love and are ready, in boundaries, and it seems to me you don't go outside the wall at all. their speeches and in their deeds, to incur the hatred of others in grat- soc.: Forgive me, best of men. For I am a lover of learning3' Now ifying the beloveds, it is quite easy to know, if they speak the truth, then, the country places and the trees are not willing to teach me any- that they will make more of those with whom they fan in love later thing, but the human beings in town are. But you in my opinion have than of these, and it is clear that, if it seems good to those, they will found the drug for my trip out. For just as they lead hungry animals treat these badly. And further, how is it reasonable to give over an af- by holding out and shaking a young shoot or some fruit, so you, fair of this sort to someone having a misfortune such as this, which 23ld 230e stretching out in front of me speeches in books, will evidently lead no one of experience would even attempt to turn aside? For even they me around all of Attica" and anywhere else you wish. So now then, themselves agree that they are sick rather than of sound rnind,1S and having arrived right here at present, it seems good to me to lie down; know that they are thinking badly but have not power to master and you, in whatever posture you consider easiest to read, assume it themselves. So how, then, when they are thinking well again, could and read. , they consider those things to be in fine shape, concerning which they 29· Hera, wife of Zeus, appears to be invoked in oaths most often by women. 3). More literally, "to be a lover of you." 30. Nymphs were vorious deities ur spirits of streams, mountains, groves, and the like; 34. Here "to be friendly" translates the verb phi/ein, for which one might choose "to love"; Achelous was the oldest river god. but I am using this latter for eran. )1. Philomafhes. 35. The word sophronein has a broad range of meanings, from "think soundly" to "be of )2. Attica is the territory of Greece consolidated under the political community of Athens. sound mind" or "be moderate." See Gorgias 48ge and 507a and notes there. 32 Phaedrus Phaedrus 33 take counsel when thus affected? In addition, if you should choose the happened not to be lovers but achieved through virtue what they best one from the lovers, your selection would be from few; but if asked for, would not be jealous of those who associate with you but you should choose the most suitable one for yourself from the others, would hate those who do not want to, supposing that they are de- 231. the selection would be from many, so that there is much greater hope spised by those, but benefited by your associates. So that there is that one worthy of your friendship happens to be among the many. much greater hope that friendship rather than enmity will come to 232e But if you're afraid of the established law,36 lest reproach befall you pass for them from the affair. 232. when human beings hear of it, it is likely that lovers, thinking they In addition, many of the lovers desire the body before they come to should be held worthy of emulation by others too, just as they are by know the character and gain experience of the other personal traits, so themselves, would be excited to speak and in their love of honor37 that it's unclear to them whether they will still wish to be friends then, would display before all that they have not toiled in vain; but non- when they have ceased from desire. But as for the nonIovers, who 233. lovers, being masters of themselves," choose what is best instead of were friends with each other even before they did these things, it is not reputation among human beings. Furthermore, many must of neces- likely that these things, through which they received benefit, should sity hear of and See the lovers following after the beloveds and mak- diminish friendship with them; but these things are left behind as re- 232b ing this their business, so that whenever they behold them conversing minders of those that are going to be. In addition, it is to be expected with each other, they suppose them then to be associated in the desire that you would become better by being persuaded by me rather than that has come to pass or that is about to be; but they don't even try to by a lover. For those people praise the sayings and the doings" even attribute blame to nonlovers on account of the association, knowing contrary to what's best, in some cases fearing lest they be hated, in that it's necessary to converse with someone either for friendship or 233b other cases because their own knowledge is worse on account of de- for some other pleasure. In addition, if fear presents itself as you think sire. For love displays effects of the follOwing sort: when they are un- how it's hard for friendship to endure and that when a disagreement fortunate, it makes them believe that things that cause no pain to oth- 232c has arisen in any other way the misfortune is common to both, but ers are grievously distressing; when they are fortunate, it compels when you have given over what you make very much of, great harm even things not worthy of pleasure to meet with praise from them. So befalls you-then you should in all probability fear the lovers more. that it is much more fitting for the beloveds to pity than to emulate For many are the things that pain them, and they believe that all them. But if you are persuaded by me, first, in my association with you things that happen tend to their own harm. Therefore they even pre- 233c I shall attend not to present pleasure, but also to the benefit that lies in vent the beloveds' associations with others, fearing that some who store for the future; I'll not be worsted by love, but in mastery of my- have acquired property may surpass them in possessions, that others self; and I shall not on account of small things take upon myself strong who have gained education may prove to be stronger in intelligence; enmity, but on account of great ones shall slowly feel slight anger, for- 232d and they guard against the power of each one of those who have ac- giving involuntary things while trying to turn aside voluntary ones: quired some other good thing. So when they have persuaded you to these are testimonies of a friendship that will exist for a long time. be hated by these, they set you down in a solitude bereft of friends; Now if this thought presents itself to you, that strong friendship can- but if, looking out for your own, you have a better thought than they, not corne into being unless someone happens to be in love, you must you will come into a disagreem, ent with them. Those, however, who 233d ponder in your heart that we would not make much of sons, nor of fa- thers and mothers, nor would we have acquired trusty friends, who )6. The word nomos means law; custom; established institution, practice, or opinion. (cid:0) (cid:0) have become such not from desire of that sort but from other practices. Corgias 482e and note there. Here one should probably take it in the sense of unwritten law Furthermore, if one must most gratify those who are most in need,'" or custom. 37· Philofimoumenous: another "phif· word" whose translation includes "love." )8. More literally, "being stronger than themselves." See Gorgins 482b and 488d and notes there. 39. That is, of the beloved. 40. Or "who ask (for it) the most," 34 Phaedms Phaedrus 35 it would be fitting in other respects too to confer benefits not on the 234d soc.: Indeed, demonically, comrade, so that I'm struck senseless! best but on those most lacking resources; for, released from the great- And I suffered this on account of you, Phaedrus, as I looked off upon est evils, they will acknowledge the most gratitude to them. Yes in- you, in that you seemed to me, in the midst of reading, to brighten" 233e deed, and in private feasts it's worthwhile to invite not friends but under the influence of the speech; for, supposing you more than me beggars and those needing replenishment; for they will appreciate to understand about such things, I followed you, and following I and follow after and come to one's doors, and will be most pleased joined in Dionysiac revelry" with you, divine head" and will acknowledge by no means the least gratitude and will pray PHAE.: Let it be. So this, then, is how it seems good to play around? for many good things for one. But perhaps it is fitting to gratify not soc.: Why, do I seem to you to be playing around and not to have those most acutely in need," but those most capable of returning the been serious? 234. favor; and not only those who are in love," but those worthy of the 234e PHAE.: No, no, Socrates. But by Zeus the god of Friendship, tell me affair; and not those who will enjoy your youthful beauty, but such truly: do you think any other of the Greeks could say different things, as will give a share in their good things to you as you become older; greater and more profuse than these, about the same affair? and not those who, having accomplished it, will take pride" in it be- soc.: What then? Must the speech be praised by me and you not only fore others, but such as, with a sense of shame, will keep silence be- because each of the words are clear, compact, and precisely turned on fore all; and not those who pay serious attention for a short time, but the lathe, but also on the grounds that its maker has said the needful things? For if it must be, I must yield for your sake, since it surely es- those who will be friends equally through the whole of life; and not those who, ceasing from desire, will seek a pretext for enmity, but those 235. caped my notice, because of my nothingness; for I applied my mind 234b who, when the bloom of youth is passed, will then clisplay their own to its rhetorical aspect alone, and I didn't think that even Lysias him- virtue. Remember, then, the things that have been said and ponder self thought this to be sufficient. In fact, Phaedrus, unless you say this in your heart, that the friends of lovers admonish them on the otherwise, he seemed to me to have said the same things two or three grounds that the practice is a bad one; but no one of their kin has ever times, as if not altogether well provided with resources to say many yet blamed nonlovers on this account for deliberating badly con- things about the same subject, or perhaps as if he had no concern for cerning themselves. such a subject; and certainly he appeared to me to act like a youth, Perhaps then you might ask me whether I am recommending that showing off his ability to say it very well in both ways, saying the you gratify all the nonlovers. Now, I suppose that neither would the same things first one way and then another. 234c lover bid you to have this intention toward all the lovers. For, neither 235b PH"".: What you say is nothing, Socrates. For this very thing is what for him who gets it would it be worthy of equal gratitude, nor for you the speech most of all has got. For of the things inherent in the affair who wish to escape the others' notice would it be possible in like that are worth stating, it has left out nothing. So that besides the manner. Indeed, no harm must come about from this, but benefit for things said by that man, no one could ever say other things more pro- both. Now then, I believe the things I've said are sufficient; but if you fuse and worth more. long for something that you consider to have been left out, ask! soc.: On this I shall no longer be able to be persuaded by you. For an- cient and wise men and women who have spoken and written about How does the speech appear 10 you, Socrates? Hasn't it been stated these things will refute me, if I yield to gratify you. extraordinarily'4-both in other respects and especially in its diction? 45. De Vries points out the play upon Phaedrus's name (phaidros, meaning bright, beam· ing, joyous). 41. Or "those who ask most vehemently." 46. A more general verb here echoes the more specific Corybantic revelry of 228b-<. 42. J. Burnet, Platonis Opera, Oxford Classical Texts, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901) 47. This phrase "divine (theios) head" should perhaps remind us of Achilles' addressing accepts Ast's conjecture instead: "those who beg." the ghost of Patroclus as "honored (ltheil) head" at Iliad 2)·94· When Socrates addresses 43· Philotimeisthai: see first note at 232<1. Phaedrus "dear head" at 264a, he repeats, as De Vries notes, the Homeric phrase "Teucer, 44· Huperphuos: it is worth noting the root pllll-(growth, nature) in this word; one might dear head" (Iliad 8.281), spoken by Agamemnon to Telamon's bastard son (and half brother capture that connection by translating "preternaturally." of Ajax). 36 Phaedrus P1taedrus 37 235<: PHAE.: Who are these people? And where have you heard things bet- ken in a measured manner. So then I too will act in this way: I shall ter than these? 236b grant you to set down the lover's being more sick than the nonlover, soc.: Well, I cannot say now, just like that; but it's clear that I have and you, having said of the remaining matters other things more pro- heard from some people, either from the beautiful Sappho, maybe, fuse and worth more than those, you shall be set up wrought with or the wise Anacreon,48 or perhaps from some writers. Now, judging the hammer at Delphi, next to the Cypselids' votive offering.5I from what do I say this? With my breast somehow full, demonic one, soc.: Have you taken serious offense, Phaedrus, because in joshing I feel that I could say, besides these things, others that are not worse. you I attacked your boyfriend, and do you really suppose that I shall Now then, I know well, being conscious of my own lack of learning, attempt to say something different and more multicolorful, to put be- that I have thought of none of these things by myself. It remains then, side that one's wisdom? 235d I suppose, that I have been filled like a jar through hearing from alien 236c PHAE.: As to this, my friend, you've got into the same sort of wrestling sources somewhere. And again from dullness I have forgotten this holds. Now more than anything you must speak in whatever way very thing too: how and from whom I heard them. you can; but beware that we're not forced to do the tiresome business PHAE.: Yes indeed, most nobly born man, what you have said is very of the comedians, answering back to each other, and don't wish to fine. And I shall not bid you to tell me from whom and how you force me to say that well-known "If, Socrates, I fail to know my Soc- heard. But do this very thing you are saying: you have promised to rates, I shall forget even myself," and "He desired to speak, but say other better and no less profuse things than those in the book, ab- played hard to get." But think it over that we shall not go away from staining from them; and to you I promise, just like the nine archons, here until you speak the things you said you have in your breast. We 235e to set up in Delphi a golden image of equal measure," not of myself 236d two are alone in solitude, I am stronger and younger, and from all only but also of you. these things "understand what I say to you,"" and don't in any way soc.: You are most dear'" and truly golden, Phaedrus, if you suppose wish to speak in consequence of violence rather than willingly. I am saying that Lysias has missed the mark in every way and that I soc.: But, blessed Phaedrus, I shall be laughable, a layman speaking can really say things different from all these. This, I think, not even offhand about the same things, compared with a good writer.53 the paltriest writer would suffer. For example, take what the speech PHAE.: Do you know how things stand? Stop playing coyS' with me! For was about: who, do you suppose, saying that one must gratify the I have something to say by which I'll more or less compel you to speak. 2363 nonlover rather than the lover, would pass over lauding the one's soc.: Then don't say it at all! prudence and blaming the other's folly, these being necessary in any PHAE.: But yes! I am saying it right now, and my speech will be an case, and then would have some different things to say? Rather, I oathSS For I swear to you-by which one, then, by which of the suppose that such things must be allowed and pardoned the speaker. 236e gods? Or do you wish by this plane tree here?-yea verily, if you do And of such things it is not the discovery but the arrangement that is not say the speech to me opposite this very tree, never again shall I to be praised; of things that are not necessary but are difficult to find, either display or report to you any other speech of anyone. in addition to the arrangement, the discovery as well. PHAE.: I concede what you're saying; for in my opinion you have spo- 51. Knowledge of that offering is not available. B. Schweitzer'S Platon lard die bildende , Kunst der Griechen (1953>-cited by De Vries, suggests that a golden statue of Zeus stood 48. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos about 140 years before Socrates, wrote mostly nearby; Phaedrus thus escalates the prize from a statue of Socrates next to one of himself lyric poetry, especially on topics relating to love. Anacreon, likewise a lyric poet, was born to a statue of Socrates next to Zeus. about forty years later than she. 52. The words are quoted from Pindar (frag. 94 Bowra, 105 Snell, 121 Turyn), quoted too at 49· The archons in Athens took an oath to set up a statue of gold if they transgressed the Meno 76d. law. "Of equal measure" translates isometretoll, which probably means life-size, but could 5)- The word poietes, here rendered "writer," was translated more literally "maker" at mean of equal weight. 234e6; it can also mean "poet." 50. The word is the superlative of phi/os, "friend, friendly" (active sense) or "dear, loved" 54. Knllopizij; more literally, "beautify the face." (passive sense). 55. A reminiscence of Achilles' angry speech to Agamemnon in Homer's Iliad 1.239. 38 Phaedrus Phaedrus 39 soc.: Oh my, foul wretch! How well you have found out the necessity not suffer what we censure in others. But since the argument lies for the man who is a lover of speeches" to do what you bid! before you and me as to whether one should enter into friendship PHAE.: So then what's with your twisting and turning? rather with lover or with nonlover, having by agreement set down a soc.: Nothing more, now that you have sworn these things. For how 237d definition concerning love, as to what kind of thing it is and what should I be able to abstain from such a banquet? power it has, let us look off to and refer to this as we make our in- 237. PHAE.: Then speak! vestigation into whether it provides benefit or harm. Now then, that soc.: Well, do you know how I'll do it? love is a certain desire is clear to everyone; and further, that non- PHAE.: In what respect? lovers too desire beautiful things, we know. By what, then, shall we soc.: I shall veil myself to speak, so that I may run through the speech separate the lover and the nonlover? We must further observe that as quickly as possible and may not be at a complete loss from a sense in each of us there are some two ruling and leading ideas, which we of shame as I look toward you. follow wherever they lead: the desire of pleasures that is naturally PHAE.: Just speak, and in other respects do as you wish! planted in us, and another acquired opinion that aims at the best. soc.: Come then, Muses, whether you are named clear-toned57 on ac- 237e These two things in us sometimes are of one mind, but sometimes count of the form58 of your song or you have this surname on account they engage in factious struggle; and at one time the one, at another of the musical race of the Ligurians, "Take part with me" in the tale, time the other, wins mastery. Now then, when opinion leads with which this best of men here forces me to speak, so that his comrade, reason toward the best and wins mastery, the name of the mastery is 237b who even earlier seemed to him to be wise, now will seem yet more so. 238. moderatio,,; but when desire without reason drags us toward plea- sures and rules in us, the name wa"to" outrage60 is applied to the Once upon a time there was a very beautiful boy, or rather youth, rule. Wanton outrage, now, has many names-for it has many limbs who had a great many lovers. A certain one of them was wily and, and many forms"-and whichever of these ideas happens to become while no less in love than anyone, had persuaded the boy that he did conspicuous causes the one who has it to be named by its own name, not love him. And then came a time when, in making his demand, he some name neither beautiful nor very worthy to have acquired. For was persuading him of this very thing, that he ought to gratify the when desire concerning food wins mastery over the reasoned ac- nonlover in preference to the lover, and he spoke as follows: 238b count of what's best and the other desires, it is called mad gluttony and causes him who has it to be called this same thing. And again, Concerning everything, my boy, there is one ruling principleS9 for when desire concerning strong drink tyrannizes, leading him who 237< those who are to deliberate finely. One must know that which the has acquired it in this direction, it is clear what epithet he will meet deliberation is about, or else one necessarily misses the mark alto- with. And as for the other names that are brothers of these, and gether. But it escapes the notice of the many that they do not know names of brother desires, each time one rules as potentate, it's clear the being of each thing. And so, on the grounds that they know, they in advance how it is fitting to be called. On what account all the fore- do not work out an agreement in the beginning of the investigation, going things have been said is already nearly evident, but what is but by going on ahead they pay back what's likely-for they agree stated is altogether clearer than what is unstated." So then, the neither with themselves Ijor with each other. So let us, you and me, desire without reason which masters the opinion striving toward 238c what's correct and is led toward the pleasure of beauty, and which, 56. Philnlogos. 57. Greek ligeiai, 60. The Greek hubris covers a wide range of meanings: arrogance, violence, outrage, wan- 58. £idos, "form." and idea, which I simply transliterate "idea," both arise from the root that tonness, lust, insolence, lewdness. denotes seeing. See Corgias 454e and note there. 61. Another manuscript reads "many parts" instead of "many forms." 59· The word arche, here translated "ruling principle," can mean simply "beginning" and 62. Several manuscripts read pan pOs instead of pantOs: "every thing that is said is somehow also "rule." clearer than what is not said" (perhaps a proverbial saying). 40 Phaedrus Phaedrus 4' in turn mightily gaining strength from desires that are akin to itself deprived of what is immediately pleasant. And he must necessarily toward the beauty of bodies, conquers in its leading, taking its name 239b be jealous, and by keeping him away from many associations, espe- from this very might, is called love.6J cially beneficial ones from which he might become a real man," he must necessarily be the cause of great harm-{)f the greatest harm by But Phaedrus, my friend, do I seem to you, as to myself, to have suf- keeping him from the association from which he might be most in- fered some divine experience? telligent..7 And this happens to be divine philosophy, which the lover PHAE.: Absolutely, Socrates; contrary to custom a certain good flu- must keep his boyfriend far away from, since he's terribly afraid of ency has possessed you. being despised; and he must devise the other things so that the 238d soc.: Hear me, then, in silence. For really the place is like to be divine; beloved will be ignorant of everything and in everything look toward so that if as the speech proceeds I should perchance become pos- the lover, and as such the beloved would be most pleasant to him, sessed by nymphs, don't wonder. For the things I am now giving 239c but most harmful to himself. So then, concerning what pertains to in- voice to are no longer far from dithyrambs. tellectual capacity, the man in love is in no way profitable as trustee PHAE.: What you're saying is very true. and partner. soc.: And really, you are the cause of these things. But hear the re- After these things we must look at the body's condition and treat- maining things; and perhaps, then, what is coming upon me may be ment: What sort is it, and how will he give treatment to the one he's turned away. These things, then, will be a concern for god; as for us, gained authority over-he who has been compelled to pursue pleas- we must go back in speech to the boy. ant instead of good? He'll be seen pursuing someone soft and not solid, reared not in pure sunlight but under mixed shade, inexperi- So be it, most brave one." What it happens to be that we must delib- enced in manly toils and hard sweat but experienced in a delicate erate about, has been stated and defined. Looking toward it, as re- 239d and unmanly way of lile, adorned with alien colors and ornaments 238e gards what remains let us say what benefit or harm from lover and for want of his own, practicing all the other things that follow along from nonlover will likely come to pass for him who gratifies. Now, with these, which are clear and not worthwhile to proceed further one ruled by desire and a slave to pleasure must necessarily, I sup- with, but it's enough that, having defined one chief point, we go on pose, make preparations for the beloved to be as pleasant as possible to something else: A body such that, in war or in other times of need for himself; and to the sick person everything that does not resist is that are great, enemies take confidence, and friends and indeed the 2393 pleasant, while what is stronger"' or equal is hateful. The lover will lovers themsel ves feel fear. not willingly bear with either a stronger or an equal boyfriend, but This matter we must now let go as clear and must then say what always works to make him weaker and more deficient. Now, un- 239. comes next: What benefit or what harm for us, as regards posses- learned is weaker than wise, cowardly than courageous, incapable of sions, will the intercourse and trusteeship of the lover provide? This speaking than rhetorical, slow than of ready wit. When so many and at least is quite evident to everyone (and most so to the lover): that still more evils, as far as intellectual capacity goes, come into being he would pray above all that the beloved be bereft of the most and by nature exist in the beloved, the lover must necessarily be friendly, best-disposed, and most divine possessions; for he would pleased by the ones and prepare to bring about the others, or else be accept the beloved's being deprived of father, mother, kin, and friends, considering them hinderers and censors of the most pleasant inter- 240a course with him. But now, if the beloved has an estate of gold or of 63· This definition of love, er3s, includes much wordplay involving the sound rho in the words for strength, might, etc. 64· De Vries notes that this epic tenn, used also twice in tragedy, may well convey an ele- 66. The Greek QUfT, here translated "real man," (and at 239C1 simply as "man") designates ment of parody. a male human being and often suggests excellence in distinctively male respects like 65· Kreitton and hetton, in this passage rendered "stronger" and "weaker," also have the courage (andreia). The generiC term for human being is anthropos. more general sense of "better" and "worse" or "superior" and "inferior," See Gorgias, note 67. Phronimos means intelligent, prudent, sensible, practically wise. See Corgias, second at 482b. note at 48ge· !Iil 42 Phaedrus Phaedrus 43 some other property, he will consider him neither equally easy to And while harmful and unpleasant when in love, when he has de- catch nor, when caught, as easily manageable; wherefore there is every sisted from love he is not to be trusted in the time afterward, the time necessity that the lover must be jealous of the boyfriend's having for which he made many promises with many oaths and bonds, so acquired an estate, and rejoice when it's destroyed. And so, further- 241> that he barely effectuated, through hope of good things, toleration at more, the lover would pray that his boyfriend be unwed, childless, that time of the burdensome association. But now that he ought to without a household, for as long a time as possible, desiring to reap payoff, having changed to another ruler in hirnseU and another leader, what is sweet for himseU for as long a time as possible. intelligence and moderation instead of love and madness, he has be- Now, there are other evils too, but some demon mixed pleasure for come other, which has escaped the boyfriend's notice. And the latter 240b the immediate moment with most of them. For instance the flatterer, demands of him favor in return for the things of that time, remind- a terribly clever beast and a great harm-all the same nature mixed ing him of things done and things said, as if he's conversing with the in a certain pleasure that is not unmusical. And someone might same person; but from a sense of shame that one neither dares to say blame the courtesan as harmful, and many other creatures and prac- 241b that he has become other nor can he uphold the oaths sworn and the tices with ways of that sort, which for the day can be very pleasant. promises made under the earlier mindless rule, now that he has got But for the boyfriend, the lover tends to be harmful and is the most possession of intelligence and has become moderate, so that he won't, 240c unpleasant thing of all to pass the day with. For as the ancient saying by doing the same things as the earlier man, again become like that goes, one of the same age delights another-for I suppose that equal- one and the same. Indeed he becomes a runaway from these things, ity of time leading them to equal pleasures through similarity pro- and the former lover, having defaulted by necessity, when the shell vides friendship-but all the same, even the association of these has fell differently," changes and hastens to flight. The other is forced to its satiety. And indeed what is compulsory in everything is said fur- pursue, vexed and hurling imprecations, having wholly ignored thermore to be grievous for everyone; now, in addition to dissimilar- from the beginning that one should never gratify the lover who is of ity, this most of all characterizes the lover in relation to the boyfriend. 241c necessity mindless, but much rather the nonlover who has intelli- For the older man associating with the younger is willing to be left gence; if not, one must of necessity give oneseU up to someone un- 240d behind neither night nor day, but is driven by necessity and frenzy68 trustworthy, disagreeable, jealous, unpleasant, and harmful as regards that leads him by always giving him pleasures, as he sees, hears, property, harmful as regards the body's condition, and by far the touches, and senses the beloved with every sensation, so that it is with most harmful as regards the soul's education, than which in truth, for pleasure that he serves the beloved closely. But as for the beloved, by both human beings and gods, there neither is {lor shall be anything giving what exhortation or what pleasures can the frenzy cause him, more honored. These things, then, you must meditate on, my boy, associating with the lover for this same time, not to reach the utmost and know that the friendship of a lover does not come into being point of unpleasantness-as he sees an older face, and not in the 241d with goodwill, but in the manner of food, for the sake of repletion, as bloom of youth, with the other things that follow along with this, wolves cherish lambs, so do lovers love boyS.70 240e which are not very delightful even to hear in speech, not to mention the ever-pressing necessity to manage them in deed; as he is kept This is it/' Phaedrus. You may no longer hear me say anything fur- under guard with guan:ls that spy out evil all the time and toward ther, but let the speech have this end for you. everyone; as he hears untimely and excessive praises, and in the same way reproaches that are not bearable when the lover is sober, but Cx). TIle image refers to 0 game in which one team would pursue and the other flee, ac- when he has got into strong drink, shameful in addition to unbear- cording to whether a tossed shell fell dark or light side up. able, as he indulges in tiresome and barefaced frankness? 70. This line has dactylic hexameter meter, used in epic poetry. Plato probably has some proverbial saying in mind, though reference to Iliad 22.263 is possible. "Love" here is phifein; "cherish" is agapan. 68. Oistros can mean gadfly, stinging, frenzy, mad passion. 71. Socrates refers back here to his earlier stated fear that he would break out into poetry.