PETRUS CHRISTUS Renaissance Master of Bruges ~ MARYAN W. AINSWORTH with contributions by MAXIMILIAAN P. J. MARTENS , r ... . ' ;":- .' . " ' The Metropolitan,Museum of Art, New York ., ·'· ,-, Contents This publication is issued in conjunction with the exhibition Petrus Christus: DIRECTOR'S FOREWORD Vll Renaissance Master ofBruges, held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from April 14 to July 31, 1994. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS lX The exhibition was organized by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. LIST OF LENDERS xi The exhibition is made possible in part by the National Endowment for the Arts, the David H. Koch Charitable Foundation, the William Bruges During Petrus Christus's Lifetime by Maximiliaan P.]. Martens 3 Randolph Hearst Foundation, and The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Petrus Christus: A Cultural Biography by Maximiliaan P.]. Martens Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 15 Copyright© 1994 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York The Art ofP etrus Christus by Maryan W. Ainsworth 25 All rights reserved CATALOGUE BY MARYAN W. AINSWORTH John P. O'Neill, Editor in Chief Pamela T. Barr, Editor Appendix Archival Documents and Literary Sources 1: Bruce Campbell, Designer Gwen Roginsky, Production Manager, and Jay Reingold, Production Associate compiled by Maximiliaan P.]. Martens 195 Jayne Kuchna, Bibliographer Appendix Dendrochronological Analysis ofP anels Attributed to Petrus Christus 2: Paintings in the Metropolitan's collection were photographed by Bruce Schwarz by Peter Klein of the Photograph Studio, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 213 Set in Dante by Professional Graphics, Rockford, Illinois SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 Printed on Garda Art Matte 150 gsm Separations by Professional Graphics, Rockford, Illinois INDEX 227 Produced by Ludion Press, Ghent, Belgium PHOTOGRAPH CREDITS Jacket/ cover illustration: Petrus Christus, Portrait ofa Lady (cat. no. 19) 232 Frontispiece: Petrus Christus, Nativity (cat. no. 17, detail) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ainsworth, Maryan Wynn. Petrus Christus : Renaissance master of Bruges I Maryan W. Ainsworth with Maximiliaan P. j. Martens. p. cm. Catalog of an exhibition held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-87099-694-0.- ISBN 0-87099-695-9 (pbk.).-ISBN 0-8109-6482-r (Abrams) r. Christus, Petrus, ea. 1410-1475 or 6- Exhibitions. 2. Painting, Renaissance- Belgium- Bruges- Exhibitions. I. Christus, Petrus, ea. 1410-1475 or 6. II. Martens, MaximiJiaan P. j. III. Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) IV. Title. ND673.C49A4 1994 759.9493- dc20 CIP ( Director., s Foreword It is a great privilege to present the work of a major Foundation, and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation for early Netherlandish painter. Comprising nearly three their contributions toward the exhibition. We are also quarters of the oeuvre of Petrus Christus, this is the indebted to the Robert Lehman Foundation for making first monographic exhibition devoted to the artist and the Lehman galleries available for the show. indeed the only significant presentation of Northern We extend warm thanks to the institutions that have Renaissance art in this country since the landmark made it possible for us to assemble twenty-one paint show at the Detroit Institute of Arts in 1960. ings, nearly three-quarters of Christus's known oeuvre. Far from a simple exercise in bringing together Also included in this exhibition are the five drawings works of art, the mounting of such an exhibition is a attributed to Christus and the only illuminated manu valuable learning experience. In the case of Petrus script with which he is associated. We are grateful to Christus, it has allowed us to look at him differently, Maryan W Ainsworth, Senior Research Fellow at the not just as a follower of Jan van Eyck but as an artist Metropolitan Museum, for organizing the exhibition. with his own distinct sensibilities. Unlike van Eyck, She selected the works, developed a new methodologi who served the dukes of Burgundy, Christus found his cal approach to the material discussed in her essay, and clientele among the bourgeoisie and wealthy foreign wrote the catalogue entries. Certain key works-the merchants who had settled in Bruges. Therefore, in Berlin wings, the London Portrait of a Young Man and many ways his oeuvre reflects the artistic standards of Portrait of Edward Grymeston, the Brussels Lamentation, his time more broadly than does van Eyck's, making and the Bentinck-Thyssen Madonna and Child in Half- the study of his life and work of particular importance length-were deemed too fragile to travel and are repre for our understanding of early Netherlandish art. sented by new technical information about them. In addition to providing an opportunity for a compre The catalogue and exhibition have been enriched by hensive study of Christus's works, this exhibition has other contributors. Maximiliaan P. J. Martens, Associate prompted us to reconsider the major paintings by him Professor at the University of Groningen, shared his in the Metropolitan Museum. The reexamination of the archival research on patronage in fifteenth-century Portrait ofa Carthusian and the Saint Eligius, in particular, Bruges and assembled the extant documents relating has confirmed that the halos on the figures were added to the artist's life, which are published here together for by a later hand. Their recent removal by Hubert von the first time. The results of the dendrochronological Sonnenburg, Sherman Fairchild Chairman, Department examinations of nineteen panel paintings attributed to of Paintings Conservation, brings these remarkable Christus are a valuable addition by Peter Klein, Lecturer paintings closer to the artist's original intention. in Wood Biology at the University of Hamburg. We are especially grateful to the National Endow We anticipate that this exhibition, unique in its scope ment for the Arts, the David H. Koch Charitable and approach, will stimulate new discussions about Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, early Netherlandish painting. At the very least, our visi and The Andrew W Mellon Foundation for sponsoring tors will undoubtedly be rewarded by a deeper acquain this exhibition. It is with equal gratitude that we thank tance with the art of Petrus Christus. the government of Flanders and the Belgian American Educational Foundation for their added support. Finally, we extend our appreciation to the National Philippe de Montebello, Director Endowment for the Humanities, The Christian Humann The Metropolitan Museum of Art Acknowledgments This exhibition takes a fresh look at the life and art of Our interdisciplinary approach-joining art-historical Petrus Christus through archival research and the tech studies with technical investigations-would not have nical examination of his works. Maximiliaan Martens's been possible without the unstinting support of Hubert recently completed study of patronage in Bruges during von Sonnenburg, Sherman Fairchild Chairman, Christus's lifetime uncovered new findings, which are Department of Paintings Conservation, and the colle included here. He has also assembled for the first time gial environment of that department, which includes all of the known documents related to Petrus Christus, art historians, paintings conservators, and scientists .•w e allowing for a richer understanding of the artist's biog have been fortunate to have the continued endorsement raphy in its historical context. of the Rowland Foundation, whose contributions and Rather than following the trend of regarding sustained interest have fostered these investigations. Christus as an eclectic, derivative artist, we have con Many individuals assisted with numerous aspects of centrated on the painter's inventive approach to ac our research, and we owe them sincere thanks. I am commodating the wishes of his patrons in Bruges. We especially grateful to Kirk Alexander, Christiane have reconsidered the artist's working method as a Andersson, J. R. J. van Asperen de Boer, Alison Baber, means to understanding his aims. This strategy Forrest Bailey, Baroness Adolphe Bentinck, Giovanna involved the firsthand study of Christus's works Bernard, Christiane Berns, Rachel Billinge, Henrik through various techniques, including infrared reflec Bjerre, Lone B0gh, David Bomford, Emil Bosshard, tography, X-radiography, microscopic analysis, and, John Brealey, Lorne Campbell, Gabriella Befani occasionally, pigment and cross-section analysis. The Canfield, Patrick Le Chanu, Alan Chong, Richard infrared reflectography of the paintings was done in Clarke, Pierre Cockshaw, Micheline Comblen-Sonkes, various museums using the Metropolitan's equipment. Philip Conisbee, Bernice Davidson, Mia Derom, The study of these paintings was greatly facilitated by Elisabeth Dhanens, Alphonse Dierick, Vincent the remarkable hospitality of the institutions we visited Ducourau, Everett Fahy, Molly Faries, Jane Farrington, as well as by a succession of art-historian interns who Christina Ferreyros, Susan Foister, A. Fournier, Burton joined me in this endeavor. The energy, eagerness, and Frederickson, Maria del Carmen Garrido, L. M. keen intellectual curiosity of these interns sustained Goegebuer, Beatrix Graf, Rainald Grosshans, Henri this effort, and it is to them that I owe the successful Guy, John Hand, Scott Hefley, Barbara Heller, Peter completion of the project. I therefore dedicate this exhi Hohenstatt, Leopold Kockaert, Jean Luc Koltz, bition and catalogue to art-historian interns Chiyo Eberhard Konig, Fritz Koreny, Thomas Kren, Clifford Ishikawa, Catherine Crawford Luber, Ronda Kasl, LaFontaine, Willy Laureyssens, E. E. M. Lemberger, Iva Jeffrey Jennings, Yvette Bruijnen, Jacob Wisse, and Lisikewycz, Tomas Llorens Serra, Hilde Lobelle Stephanie Buck and summer interns Sarah Ganz, Caluwe, Philippe Lorentz, Patrice Marandel, Jennifer Milam, and Cynthia Anderson. The improved A. W F. M. Meij, Wolfgang Milde, Gay Nay, Myra Orth, computer documentation of the underdrawings in the Michael Pacht, Nancy Ames Petersen, Silvana Pettinati, paintings was achieved by Teresa Russo, to whom we are Wolfgang Prohaska, Nicole Reynaud, Fran<;oise greatly indebted. Diana Church expertly printed hun Roberts-Jones, Maria Teresa Rodriguez, Charles dreds of infrared reflectograms of Christus's paintings. Ryskamp, Jochen Sander, David Saunders, Christoph ix Schmidt, Gerald Schulz, Manfred Sellink, Veronique Paintings Conservation, assisted with many administra List of Lenders Sintobin, Marcia Steele, Leon Stodulski, Margret tive details. Katria Czerwoniak helped with our numer Stuffmann, Elizabeth Teviotdale, Dominique Thiebaut, ous requests for interlibrary loans. George Bisacca Mark Trowbridge, Joel Upton, Susan Urbach, Gillian handled the special requirements of the climate-control Varley, Franc;oise Viatte, Markus Volkel, Dirk De Vos, boxes and careful transportation of the panels; Peter Waldeis, Roger Ward, Roger Wieck, Eliane De Charlotte Hale and Stefan Dedecek made X-radiographs Wilde, Martha Wolff, and Martin Wyld. of our Christus paintings. Bruce Schwarz took new EUROPE UNITED STATES photographs. Berlin Cleveland The close visual scrutiny of a work of art inevitably I was privileged to work with Pamela Barr, who edit Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Gemii.ldegalerie, Cleveland Museum ofA rt, cat. no. 3 raises questions about its state and condition. In the ed the catalogue, and with Bruce Campbell, who cat. nos. 7, 19 Detroit course of this study, the Death of the Virgin, the designed it. Jayne Kuchna coordinated and checked the Birmingham Detroit Institute ofA rts, cat. no. 1 Washington Nativity, the Los Angeles Portrait of a Man, bibliography. The careful supervision of John P. O'Neill Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery, cat. no. 9 and the Metropolitan Museum's Friedsam Annunciation was indispensable, as was the attention given to details Kansas City and Head of Christ were restored, allowing for a fresh, of the production of the book by Barbara Burn, Gwen Brussels Nelson-Atkins Museum ofA rt, cat. no. 20 unencumbered view of these important paintings. Roginsky, Jay Reingold, Teresa Egan, Kathleen Howard, Bibliotheque Royale Albert 1er, cat. no. 21 Los Angeles Their skillful restoration was carried out by David Bull, Connie Harper, and Mary Smith. Budapest Los Angeles County Museum ofA rt, cat. no. 16 Teresa Longyear, Catherine Metzger, Joseph Fronek, I am especially grateful to Philippe de Montebello, Szepmii.veszeti Muzeum, cat. no. 11 New York and Hubert van Sonnenburg. It has long been recog Director, for his enthusiasm for this project. Without Frankfurt am Main Frick Collection, cat. no. 2 nized that both the Portrait of a Carthusian and the Saint the efforts of Mahrukh Tarapor, Kent Lydecker, Emily Stii.delsches Kunstinstitut und Stii.dtische Galerie, cat. nos. 13, 24 The Metropolitan Museum ofA rt, cat. nos. 4 5, 6, 8, 10 Eligius had halos that were added by a later hand. Rafferty with Lynne Winter and Terri Constant, Rich 1 Hubert van Sonnenburg removed these halos and ard Morsches, Linda Sylling, Daniel Kershaw, and Madrid San Diego restored the paintings to their rightful appearance, Barbara Weiss, this show could not have been mounted Fundaci6n Colecci6n Thyssen-Bornemisza, cat. no. 18 Timken Museum ofA rt, cat. no. 15 greatly enhancing the spatial clarity that was originally in its present form. Museo de! Prado, cat. no. 14 Washington, D.C. intended by Christus. Last, but not least, my profound gratitude to Charles Paris National Gallery ofA rt, cat. nos. 12, 17 From the outset, Laurence B. Kanter, Curator of the and Clark Ainsworth for their patience and constant Musee du Louvre, cat. no. 25 Robert Lehman Collection, graciously offered the support. Rotterdam Lehman galleries for the exhibition as well as the help Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, cat. no. 23 of his staff to take care of the necessary clerical duties for the loans. Special thanks are due to Larry and to Maryan W Ainsworth Turin Monique van Dorp for her efforts on our behalf. Nina Senior Research Fellow Biblioteca Reale, cat. no. 26 Maruca, in the Registrar's Office, served as the liaison Department of Paintings Conservation Vienna for all the loans. Kathy Miller, in the Department of The Metropolitan Museum of Art Graphische Sammlung Albertina, cat. no. 22 X xi PETRUS CHRISTUS Renaissance Master of Bruges / J. MAXIMILIAAN P. MARTENS Bruges During Petrus Christus 's Lifetime POLITICAL HISTORY T he policy of territorial expansion of Duke Philip Flanders. The alliance against England and the depar the Good of Burgundy (r. 1419-67; fig. 1) ture of the Hanseatics from Bruges immediately led to reached a summit about 1435, the year the treaty unemployment and grain shortages. of Arras brought an end to the hostilities between the Growing dissatisfaction and frustration over the fail Burgundians and the French.1 In exchange for ceasing ure of the Calais expedition provoked Bruges to assume his alliance with the English crown, Philip was exempt aggressive domination over its subject cities. The armed ed from his feudal responsibilities toward Charles VII of forces that had just returned from Calais threatened France and given the counties of Picardy, Ponthieu, and Sluis and other places in the surrounding countryside Boulogne as well as several cities along the Somme with military action if they would not recognize the River. city's authority. From then on, Philip radically altered his policy and On May 22, 1437, Philip the Good arrived in Bruges concentrated on the development of a strong central with an army, hoping to call the city to order. Furious government. This process implied a steady limitation of Bruges citizens surrounded the duke, threatening to kill the power of the large cities in the Burgundian territo him. Jean de Villers, lord of l'Ile-Adam, the officer who ries, including Ghent and Bruges. Philip's son and heir, covered the duke's desperate flight through the Charles the Bold (r. 1467-77), continued this process of Boeveriepoort, was killed in action.4 Enraged by such Burgundization, 2 which culminated in the institution of insubordination, Philip besieged the city. The massive the Parliament of Mechlin (the central court) and the failure of the grain harvests throughout Europe that Chamber of Finances (the central financial administra summer had led to a dramatic famine within the walls tion) in 1473. of the isolated town. Utter despair struck the rebellious The gradual erosion of age-old privileges often citizens when plague broke out between June i and incited revolts in the traditionally independent cities of November II, 1437. About one fifth of Bruges's popula the Burgundian Netherlands. The dukes repeatedly tion perished.5 resorted to bloody repression to put down conflicts in Totally weakened, the city surrendered in March Bruges (1436-38), Ghent (1447-53 and 1467), Utrecht 1438 and was severely punished by the duke, who hoped (1455-56), Dinant (1466), and Liege (1465-68). to set an example for future rebels. Bruges's control In June and July 1436, Philip besieged Calais, which over its subordinate cities was restricted; the privileges was in English hands. Bruges and other Flemish cities of the guilds were revised; huge fines were imposed; delegated troops and made considerable financial con the Boeveriepoort was closed off; and the city was tributions toward the operation. Meanwhile, in Sluis, forced to fund an annual mass for the lord of l'Ile the port closest to Bruges, several Hanseatic merchants Adam. 6 On December II, 1440, the duke publicly for (also called Easterlings) suspected of sympathy for the gave the city, ·and with much splendor Bruges pledged English were killed. As a result, the Hanseatic League its allegiance to Philip the Good. After these dramatic left Bruges, an action that had serious consequences, events, Bruges remained loyal to its sovereign for the since the Hanseatics were the most important trade next forty years, the period of Petrus Christus's activity partners of the Netherlands.3 They supplied English there. Fig. r. School of Rogier van der Weyden, Portrait of Philip the Good. Oil on oak, 12:V. x 8%i n. (32.5 x 22,4 cm). wool to the Flemish textile industry and imported indis The comprehensive centralization of ducal power, Groeningemuseum, Bruges pensable grain provisions from the Baltic region to sustained by fierce repression of local revolts, was obvi- 3 1494, however, the tax burden went up 300 percent. LOCAL BOURGEOISIE AND FOREIGN MERCHANTS ECONOMIC CLIMATE Evidently, this increase was related to the huge costs By the middle of the twelfth century, Bruges had involved in the ongoing military campaigns and the for The regular presence of the ducal court was not the evolved into one of the most important commercial mation of a permanent professional standing army only factor that attracted artists and artisans to centers north of the Alps.9 During Petrus Christus's life under Charles the Bold. Bruges-the luxury-loving local businessmen also con time, the city was thriving economically, yet its interna The thriving economy between about 1440 and 1473 stituted a major source of artistic patronage. Belonging tional commercial importance was slowly on the wane, created a favorable climate for the production and con to the most prominent families in town, they were the and Antwerp was soon to take over as the most promi sumption of luxury goods and art in Flanders. The trade city's financial elite. They governed the political institu nent harbor and center of commerce and finance in the volume in the Netherlands was double what it had been tions, managed the hospitals, and were members of the North.10 The gradual silting of the Zwin-the connec at the beginning of the century.17 Evidently, since a con important confraternities and guilds. Both individually tion between Bruges and the North Sea-played a seri siderable amount of money was in circulation, the and as members of these social associations, they fund ous role in this development. Repeatedly, grand but demand for new investment possibilities emerged. ed endowments and donated works of art to religious ineffective waterworks were undertaken to remedy this and charitable institutions. dramatic geographical evolution.n Typical for an international commercial center such BRUGES AS A DUCAL RESIDENCE Another factor in the increasing vulnerability of the as Bruges was the presence of many foreign merchants. city's economy was the lack of industrial and economic The Burgundian dukes liked to travel from one resi Grouped in districts according to their nationality or diversification. International trade, financing, and the dence to another, and in the early 1430s Bruges became city of origin, these foreign nations all had their offices, production of luxury goods such as fine cloth were one of their favorites. 18 The dukes, sometimes accom-. or logge, which often served as their consulate, in the lucrative activities but highly interdependent. Unlike panied by distinguished guests, often made triumphal city.20 One of the four headquarters of the Hanseatic Antwerp, Bruges was apparently not flexible enough to entries into the city. In 1457, for instance, Philip the League was located in Bruges.21 The League imported convert its market to the trade of colonial commodities, Good brought the French dauphin, the future Louis XI, mainly organic products, such as grain, charcoal, wood, which gradually became more important. to Bruges, and in 1463 he escorted the fugitive queen of tar, and fur, ,and shipped luxury textiles to Prussia, the Undoubtedly, this evolution went largely unnoticed England. Philip continuously expanded and remodeled Baltic region, and the western part of Russia. The by the contemporary Bruges population, as the general the Prinsenhof, his castle in Bruges (fig. 3). English ,..m. erchants were assembled in the Merchant standard of living was much higher between 1440 and The dukes often chose Bruges as the site for impor Adventurers. 22 They traded mainly in wool, which they 1470 than it had been. 12 Large sections of the population tant weddings and chapter meetings of the Order of the first stocked in Calais. From there, large amounts of were able to afford meat, dairy products, and grain on a Golden Fleece. 19 On these occasions, both the court English wool were shipped to Bruges. Fig. 2. Workshop of Rogier van der W eyden, Portrait of Charles the regular basis, even though the price of grain was always and the city magistrature outdid themselves organizing The commercial contacts with the Mediterranean Bold. Oil on oak, 19Y. x 12% in. (49 x 32 cm). Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Gemaldegalerie, Berlin subject to fluctuation due to variations in the harvest. 13 the most splendid celebrations. On January 7, 1430, markets were also extensive.23 The Catalan nation was Nevertheless, from 1439 to 1477, only once, in the winter when Philip the Good married his third wife, Isabella of already established in Bruges by 1330. Castilians ously unacceptable to the large Flemish cities. How of 1456-57, were the prices of food unusually high. This Portugal, in Bruges, he also founded the famous Order received business privileges in 1348, and about forty ever, the times changed. Charles the Bold engaged in a was the one time in the Burgundian era that the lower of the Golden Fleece. Several solemn chapter meetings years later the Portuguese were officially established in . series of wars that drastically drained his financial social classes were able to recuperate from periods of of the order were held in the city (1432, church of Sint the city. The Spanish nations mainly traded in fruit and resources (fig. 2). In 1473, the duke had to make impor shortage. 14 Between 1478 and 1492, food prices inflated Donaas; 1468, Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk; 1478, Sint Spanish wool. The Italian nations played a most promi- tant concessions to the cities in exchange for money, to an unprecedented high, while wages did not follow. Salvatorskerk). Charles the Bold married Margaret of nent role in Bruges. Four of their logge were located in which was collected through special taxes.7 Eventually, The period's favorable economic climate was sus York, the sister of the English king Edward IV, in Bruges the Vlamingstraat: that of the Genoese, which still Charles became a victim of the successive wars he had tained by a strong currency and mild taxation. The for on July 3, 1468. The festivities for this wedding, which exists, and those of the Florentines, the Venetians, and to fight, dying in the battle of Nancy on January 5, 1477. mer was a result of the unification of the monetary lasted ten days, were the most lavish staged in the city the Lucchese (fig. 4). They imported silk, Oriental Burgundy and Franche-Comte were immediately occu system in the Burgundian Netherlands by Philip the during the fifteenth century. spices, and sugarcane.24 The Italians were known pri pied by the troops of the French king Louis XI. On Good in 1433.15 Between 1416 and 1433, prior to the Evidently, Bruges artists profited from the regular marily as specialists in finance and monetary trade. 25 January 24, news of the duke's death was confirmed reform, the currency was repeatedly devalued. Due to presence of the Burgundian dukes and their following The Florentine Medici bank had its most important for in the Netherlands. Only eighteen days later, on mounting external conflicts and a deterioration of the of courtiers and high officials, which likewise stimulat eign branch in Bruges between 1439 and 1490.26 February n, 1477, the Flemish cities extorted the Great general economic climate, the currency was again sub ed the immigration of many foreign artists who were Until 1464, it was headed by Agnolo Tani; later, Privilege from Mary of Burgundy (r. 1477-82), the ject to frequent devaluation between 1474 and 1496. attracted by the possibility of finding patrons. Tommaso Portinari took over his position. The pres young and inexperienced daughter of Charles, 8 and all The tax load followed a similar pattern. 16 Between Moreover, the activity of court artists, such as Jan van ence of this bank in Bruges provided the Burgundian the civil privileges they enjoyed before 1438 were 1456 and 1471, taxes increased about 30 percent more Eyck and Pierre Coustain, created an opportunity for dukes with significant financial clout. restored. than they did between 1439 and 1455. Between 1472 and intellectual exchange. By the end of the thirteenth century, northern 4 5 r=====·---~=~:=:-=-=-=·=-=··=--=--~--=-=--===::=,e;~~=~-=~-=-=,--=--=~-~--=====~ P .AL.!. T IVM P:J.UNCIPIS- . Jt<l,e..Brugenfi . ·\ ~~ '' ·,,. ,i."=~t.t;J~,lk;µ ; . .. '· ~"1.,,,-.cJ.,.,/,;, .. §,: ~~;_,...Jc-.· . .;.,,,,~,..;,;,.. 7.J.,m,,l,,<,"""'-for. s:,J,,,r,,..,J,,,,§6'..:.v . . 9-:x>dllllnlalm.. i.a;Ji~ Fig. 3. Palatium Principis in Urbe Brugensi. Engraving, in Antonius Sanderus, Flandria Illustrata (Cologne, r64r) Fig. 4. Byrsa Brugensis. Engraving, in Antonius Sanderus, Flandria Illustrata (Cologne, r64r) Italians had already contributed to the development of ARTISTIC PRODUCTION respectively, Philippe de Mazerolles and Loyset Liedet carved and tapestries woven.33 The production of figu a preeminent European money market in Bruges, (fig. 5), famous book illuminators from northern rative brass tomb plates was another traditional activity where many financial techniques of credit and During the fifteenth century, about 31 percent of the France, followed Vrelant's example. A number of illu of local artists.34 exchange were introduced. 27 The first stock exchange members of the corporation of image-makers were minators working in Bruges during the second half of By the thirteenth century, Bruges had become a in Europe was established in the house of the de Beurze immigrants from the Burgundian realm and beyond the fifteenth century remained anonymous, such as major center for the production of illuminated family on the Vlamingstraat, next to the Genoese who had established their workshops in Bruges, having the Master of Margaret of York and the Master of the psalters.35 During the first half of the fifteenth century, loggia. The amount of money involved in financial trade been attracted by the diversity of opportunities the Dresden Prayerbook.3° the city produced large quantities of books of hours, for greatly exceeded that in the exchange of commodities. city's institutions and residents had to offer. 29 Jan van Bruges also attracted a rich variety of highly special both the local market and export.36 Flemish manuscript The Italians residing in Bruges assumed an especial Eyck opened his workshop there, most likely after fin ized craftsmen, including furriers, hatters, jewelers, and production benefited a great deal from the patronage of ly prominent position as patrons of Flemish pictures, ishing the Ghent Altarpiece in 1432. Petrus Christus, goldsmiths.31 The city provided them with a large mar Philip the Good, who actively began collecting illumi which they often commissioned for display back home. probably from the Brabantine village of Baerle, ket, and through its harbor their products were export nated manuscripts, beginning about 1445 (fig. 6).37 Tommaso Portinari is undoubtedly the most famous of acquired Bruges citizenship in 1444. Hans Memling, ed to all parts of the known world, where Flemish Ducal patronage stimulated an unprecedented flower these patrons. He commissioned the Adoration of the originally from Seligenstadt, Germany, became active in luxury goods were wanted and praised for their high ing of manuscript production in Bruges, Brussels, Shepherds, better known as the Portinari Altarpiece Bruges in 1465. Gerard David emigrated twenty years quality. Ghent, Oudenaarde, Mons, Valenciennes, Hesdin, and (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence), from Hugo van der later from Oudewater, in Holland. The French painters Bruges artistic production in the fifteenth century Lille.38 The contribution of Bruges artists to the pro Goes and shipped it to Florence to be installed in the Jan Fabiaen, Didier de la Riviere, Pierre Coustain, and was certainly not restricted to the celebrated works of duction of ducal manuscripts was substantial. Of all the hospital church of Santa Maria Nuova. Hans Memling Jan de Her settled in Bruges, where they received such painters as van Eyck, Christus, Memling, and centers in the Netherlands, Bruges produced the great painted the Passion of Christ (Galleria Sabauda, Turin) commissioILs from the magistrature and other local David. The city's artists did paint large altarpieces, est number of illuminated codices during the fifteenth for Tommaso, as well as portraits of him and his wife, institutions. objects for individual devotion, and portraits, but they century.39 It was also the only city where all the crafts Maria Baroncelli (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, In 1454, the. miniaturist Willem Vrelant moved his also designed models for tapestries and goldsmiths' men involved in the book trade were assembled in a 28 New York). workshop frorrn Utrecht to Bruges. In 1467 and 1469, workY Retables and freestanding sculpture were guild, called the librarians, founded at least by 1454.4° 6 7 city's upper and upper-middle classes.44 The artists who works similar to those made locally. The customer was worked for them were generally of a social status com protected by the corporation's control over the quality parable to that of other skilled artisans. The working of the work and the materials used. When a work was conditions of the artists were to a great extent deter commissioned from an artist, a contract was drawn up, mined by local political and economic circumstances as listing the patron's wishes.45 Even though very few con well as by a series of corporate regulations. Only court tracts from Bruges have survived, other sources have painters were exempted from local restrictions. Other revealed information about their contents.46 They stip artists were allowed to have one shop and to exhibit ulated the nature of the work, its destination, and part of their work at counters. External competition sometimes dimensions and iconographic details. was discouraged by prohibiting the importation of Occasionally, a model was submitted, which was )11[, r ronnn.ma. oetum ~ faint• t""(; liu~.( aluc Jcdk mmt &mt (a,lh• toutt,f a.tut., (fJt (t1nr - laqu.«k nt(f nnl 1,1lur .. £ (altttnhOl) 11~qnG r ~?, \)(. man'1_..gll1aa ptc,na ~,if. k.cnm l~1cm tn m nud&a1bnN (t 001(. 'i\tdllf.f.ndnf. W,ntnrhu.', µft '1 ~1tt.. c)i(,n fu(mdt 0111;1.c, pfottK, ~ , t)"'(m,(C!.911(,U.C fot.t A.IKClJll<r tiW / - -Cu '"' kl«.1'(, c.nm; to1utr .ke-fcttm«~~ . -· Fig. 5. Loyset Liedet, Queen Elizabeth of England Entering Paris, in Jean Fig. 6. Willem Vrelant, Philip the Good Kneeling in Front of an Froissart, Chroniques, vol. 1, MS fr. 2643, fol. rr. Tempera on vellum. Annunciation, in Jean Mielot, Traite sur la Salutation Angelique, MS 9270, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris fol. 2v. Tempera on vellum. Bibliotheque Royale Albert rer, Brussels The bibliophile interests of the dukes were widely all featured the Bruges lion (barry of eight gules and sil emulated by other members of the court. Duchess ver, a lion rampant azure). Margaret of York, for instance, played a prominent role The court as well as the municipal authorities spent in the evolution of the production of deluxe manu vast sums on the decorations for festivities and official scripts in Flanders during the last quarter of the century ceremonies, such as triumphal entries of the duke, (fig. 7). 41 Other courtiers followed this example. After funerals of courtiers and high officials, chapter meet the dukes, Louis of Bruges, lord of Gruuthuse, was ings of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and proces undoubtedly the greatest bibliophile in Flanders; 145 sions, jousts, tournaments, and banquets offered by the 42 codices from his collection have been preserved. magistrate to visiting dignitaries and diplomatic emis Most members of the Bruges guild of image-makers saries. The splendor of the decorations unfolded on Fig. 7. Workshop of the were not involved in the creation of "high art"; the these occasions has profoundly contributed to the wide Master of Margaret of majority produced decorative work, often in the service spread reputation of Flanders's opulence during the late York, Acrobats, in Quintus of local institutions.43 Throughout the city, artists deco Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Curtius Rufus, Les Faites d'Alexandre le Grand, ea. rated public buildings, polychromed and gilded statues 1470-80, 83.MR.178 (MS and fountains, and embellished them with the city's Ludwig XV 8), fol. 99r. THE ROLE OF PATRONS coats of arms and other heraldic motifs. Banners, flags, Tempera on vellum. J. Paul Getty Museum, and pennons-and in times of war, tents and artillery- Most patrons of works of art in Bruges belonged to the Malibu 8 9