P E S T I C I D E S I N A G R I C U LT U R E A N D T H E E N V I R O N M E N T E D I T E D B Y WILLIS B. WHEELER University of Florida Gainesville,Florida,U.S.A. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York Basel • TM Copyright ©2002 by Marcel Dekker,Inc. All Rights Reserved. ISBN: 0-8247-0809-1 Thisbookisprinted onacid-freepaper. Headquarters MarcelDekker,Inc. 270MadisonAvenue,New York,NY 10016 tel:212-696-9000;fax:212-685-4540 EasternHemisphereDistribution MarcelDekkerAG Hutgasse4,Postfach812,CH-4001Basel, Switzerland tel:41-61-260-6300;fax: 41-61-260-6333 World WideWeb http://www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright2002 byMarcelDekker,Inc. AllRights Reserved. 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Currentprinting (lastdigit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTEDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA BOOKSINSOILS,PLANTS,ANDTHEENVIRONMENT EditorialBoard AgriculturalEngineering RobertM.Peart,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville AnimalScience HaroldHafs,RutgersUniversity,NewBrunswick, NewJersey Crops MohammadPessarakli,UniversityofArizona, Tucson IrrigationandHydrology DonaldR.Nielsen,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis Microbiology JanDirkvanElsas,ResearchInstituteforPlant Protection,Wageningen,TheNetherlands Plants L.DavidKuykendall,U.S.Departmentof Agriculture,Beltsville,Maryland KennethB.Marcum,TexasA&MUniversity, El Paso,Texas Soils Jean-MarcBollag,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity, UniversityPark,Pennsylvania TsuyoshiMiyazaki,UniversityofTokyo SoilBiochemistry,Volume1,editedbyA.D.McLarenandG.H.Peterson SoilBiochemistry,Volume2,editedbyA.D.McLarenandJ.Skujiòð SoilBiochemistry,Volume3,editedbyE.A.PaulandA.D.McLaren SoilBiochemistry,Volume4,editedbyE.A.PaulandA.D.McLaren SoilBiochemistry,Volume5,editedbyE.A.PaulandJ.N.Ladd SoilBiochemistry,Volume6,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky SoilBiochemistry,Volume7,editedbyG.StotzkyandJean-MarcBollag SoilBiochemistry,Volume8,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky SoilBiochemistry,Volume9,editedbyG.StotzkyandJean-MarcBollag SoilBiochemistry,Volume10,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by C. A.I.GoringandJ.W.Hamaker HumicSubstancesintheEnvironment,M.SchnitzerandS.U.Khan MicrobialLifeintheSoil:AnIntroduction,T.Hattori PrinciplesofSoilChemistry,KimH.Tan Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by KeithA.Smith Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications, editedbyRobertL.TateIIIandDonaldA.Klein SymbioticNitrogenFixationTechnology,editedbyGeraldH.Elkan Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Shingo Iwata and ToshioTabuchiwithBennoP.Warkentin Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by KeithA.Smith Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E. Mullins GrowthandMineralNutritionofFieldCrops,N.K.Fageria,V.C.Baligar,and CharlesAllanJones Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J. Skujiòð PlantRoots:TheHiddenHalf,editedbyYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUzi Kafkafi PlantBiochemicalRegulators,editedbyHaroldW.Gausman MaximizingCropYields,N.K.Fageria TransgenicPlants:FundamentalsandApplications,editedbyAndrewHiatt Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management,editedbyF.BlaineMetting,Jr. PrinciplesofSoilChemistry:SecondEdition,KimH.Tan WaterFlowinSoils,editedbyTsuyoshiMiyazaki HandbookofPlantandCropStress,editedbyMohammadPessarakli GeneticImprovementofFieldCrops,editedbyGustavoA.Slafer AgriculturalFieldExperiments:DesignandAnalysis,RogerG.Petersen EnvironmentalSoilScience,KimH.Tan Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: Modern Ap- proaches,editedbyAmarjitS.Basra Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Sally Benson Plant–EnvironmentInteractions,editedbyRobertE.Wilkinson HandbookofPlantandCropPhysiology,editedbyMohammadPessarakli HandbookofPhytoalexinMetabolismandAction,editedbyM.DanielandR. P.Purkayastha Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition, Re- vised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S. Jayas, Noel D. G. White, and WilliamE.Muir AgrochemicalsfromNaturalProducts,editedbyC.R.A.Godfrey SeedDevelopmentandGermination,editedbyJaimeKigelandGadGalili NitrogenFertilizationintheEnvironment,editedbyPeterEdwardBacon Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, William T. Frankenberger,Jr.,andMuhammadArshad HandbookofWeedManagementSystems,editedbyAlbertE.Smith SoilSampling,Preparation,andAnalysis,KimH.Tan SoilErosion,Conservation,andRehabilitation,editedbyMenachemAgassi Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, editedbyYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUziKafkafi Photoassimilate Distribution in Plants and Crops: Source–Sink Relation- ships,editedbyEliZamskiandArthurA.Schaffer Mass Spectrometry of Soils, edited by Thomas W. Boutton and Shinichi Yamasaki HandbookofPhotosynthesis,editedbyMohammadPessarakli Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach, SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,EmanuelMazor Fauna in Soil Ecosystems: Recycling Processes, Nutrient Fluxes, and Agri- culturalProduction,editedbyGeroBenckiser Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, edited byTeresaHoodandJ.BentonJones,Jr. Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B. B. Desai,P.M.Kotecha,andD.K.Salunkhe ModernSoilMicrobiology,editedbyJ.D.vanElsas,J.T.Trevors,andE.M. H.Wellington Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N. K. Fageria, V.C.Baligar,andCharlesAllanJones Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and Host DefenseMechanisms,P.Vidhyasekaran PlantPathogenDetectionandDiseaseDiagnosis,P.Narayanasamy Agricultural Systems Modeling and Simulation, edited by Robert M. Peart andR.BruceCurry AgriculturalBiotechnology,editedbyArieAltman Plant–Microbe Interactions and Biological Control, edited by Greg J. Boland andL.DavidKuykendall Handbook of Soil Conditioners: Substances That Enhance the Physical PropertiesofSoil,editedbyArthurWallaceandRichardE.Terry Environmental Chemistry of Selenium, edited by William T. Frankenberger, Jr.,andRichardA.Engberg Principles of Soil Chemistry: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Kim H. Tan SulfurintheEnvironment,editedbyDouglasG.Maynard Soil–Machine Interactions: A Finite Element Perspective, edited by Jie Shen andRadheyLalKushwaha Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, edited by Kaushal K. Sinha and DeepakBhatnagar PlantAminoAcids:BiochemistryandBiotechnology,editedbyBijayK.Singh Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology, edited by Francisco I. Pugnaire and FernandoValladares Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress: Second Edition, Revised and Ex- panded,editedbyMohammadPessarakli Plant Responses to Environmental Stresses: From Phytohormones to Ge- nomeReorganization,editedbyH.R.Lerner HandbookofPestManagement,editedbyJohnR.Ruberson EnvironmentalSoilScience:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,KimH. Tan MicrobialEndophytes,editedbyCharlesW.BaconandJamesF.White,Jr. Plant–Environment Interactions: Second Edition, edited by Robert E. Wil- kinson MicrobialPestControl,SushilK.Khetan Soil and Environmental Analysis: Physical Methods, Second Edition, Re- visedandExpanded,editedbyKeithA.SmithandChrisE.Mullins The Rhizosphere: Biochemistry and Organic Substances at the Soil–Plant Interface,RobertoPinton,ZenoVaranini,andPaoloNannipieri Woody Plants and Woody Plant Management: Ecology, Safety, and Envi- ronmentalImpact,RodneyW.Bovey MetalsintheEnvironment:AnalysisbyBiodiversity,M.N.V.Prasad Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis: Second Edition, Revised andExpanded,P.Narayanasamy Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,editedbyMohammadPessarakli EnvironmentalChemistryofArsenic,editedbyWilliamT.Frankenberger,Jr. Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications, edited by RichardG.BurnsandRichardP.Dick Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited byYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUziKafkafi Handbook of Plant Growth: pH as the Master Variable, edited by Zdenko Rengel BiologicalControlofCropDiseases,editedbySamuelS.Gnanamanickam PesticidesinAgricultureandtheEnvironment,editedbyWillisB.Wheeler Mathematical Models of Crop Growth and Yield, Allen R. Overman and RichardV.ScholtzIII Plant Biotechnology and Transgenic Plants, edited by Kirsi-Marja Oksman- CaldenteyandWolfgangH.Barz HandbookofPostharvestTechnology:Cereals,Fruits,Vegetables,Tea,and Spices, edited by Amalendu Chakraverty, Arun S. Mujumdar, G. S. VijayaRaghavan,andHosahalliS.Ramaswamy HandbookofSoilAcidity,editedbyZdenkoRengel AdditionalVolumesinPreparation Humic Matter: Issues and Controversies in Soil and Environmental Science, KimH.Tan MolecularHostResistancetoPests,S.SadasivamandB.Thayumanavan Preface Thisvolumeisdesignedtofillthenicheestablishedintheearly1970sbyPesti- cidesintheEnvironment,editedbyRobertWhite-Stephens,atthetimeamember oftheRutgersUniversityfaculty.Thethree-volumeworkrepresentedastate-of- the-artdescriptionofthefieldofpesticidesinadifferenttimeanddifferentplace. The arena of pest management has changed dramatically in the past 30- plusyears.PesticidesinAgricultureandtheEnvironmentisdesignedtosumma- rize thestateofthevariousaspectsof pestmanagement,some ofwhichdid not exist a generation ago and all of which have changed dramatically. It does not focus on the chemistry of the various pest management tactics as did White- Stephens’s book. The present volume describes the current status of pesticide issues and those related to the broader topic of pest management. It discusses integrated pest management (IPM) and how it came to be, the current state of riskassessment,biologicalcontroltechniques,theeconomicsofpestmanagement andpestmanagementlegislation,andthecurrentstateofanalyticalmethodsused byinternationalregulatorsandoffersastate-of-the-artdescriptionofthescience of environmental fate. It also presents specific issues for pest management on “minor crops,” the current approach and issues related to chemical application technology,theimportantissuesofresistanceofpeststopesticidesandmanage- mentofthatresistance,and,finally,alooktothefutureforbothpestmanagement chemistry and the state of the pest management industry. The authors of these chapters represent the best expertise in the field. The enactment of the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of 1996 has hadamajorimpactoncontemporarypestmanagementregulation.Itsfar-reaching consequencesarediscussedinessentiallyeverychapter.Owingtoitsimportance, I summarize a number of its provisions in the following paragraphs. TheFQPAof1996amendedtheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRoden- ticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). TheseamendmentsfundamentallychangedthewaytheU.S.EnvironmentalPro- tection Agency (USEPA) regulates pesticides. The requirements include a new safety standard—reasonable certainty of no harm—that must be applied to all pesticidesusedonfoods.TheFQPA was designed toresolvetheDelaney Para- dox, protect children from pesticides, and address endocrine disruption. To ac- complish these goals, the law provides that: • The USEPA is to reregister pesticides every 15 years using the best available data. • There is a specific definition of minor (use) crops: The definition in- cludes crops grown on fewer than 300,000 acres or a minor use may be defined on an economic basis if the pesticide use on a crop is very limited.Itmayalsobedefinedasminorifthepesticideuseistheonly alternative, orifitissaferthanother alternatives,orifitisneededfor IPM and resistance management. The FQPA also provided incentives todevelopandmaintainminoruses,andtoimplementafasterapproval of reduced-risk pesticides and those used on minor crops. • The zero-tolerance standard for certain pesticides in processed foods beeliminated(theoldDelaneyClause)andthatweestablishnewstan- dards for setting tolerances in both fresh and processed foods. • Tolerances(maximumresiduevalue)mustbesafe,i.e.,“providearea- sonable certainty that no harm will result from aggregate exposure.” Alltolerancesmustbereviewedby2006,andthemosttoxicmaterials must be reviewed first. • Risksfrompesticidesmustbebasedonexposurestoallchemicalsthat have a common mode of toxicity. In the past, exposure was based on pesticidesinfoodonly.Nowallexposuresmustbeconsidered:dietary, water, and household. • Safetyfactorsformerlyincludedintra-andinterspeciesvariation(rang- ing from100-to1000-fold);nowsafetyfactorsmustalsoincludefac- tors for infants and children. Thus additional safety factors can give a 1000–10,000-foldsafetyfactor.Toimplementevaluationofthesafety factorforinfantsandchildren,theUSEPAhaslookedatthefoodsthat makeuplargepercentagesofthedietsofinfantsandchildren,including apples, peaches, soybeans, pears, and carrots. • Endocrinedisruptorsarecompoundsthatmimicorblocktheeffectsof hormones, such as estrogen, or act on the endocrine system and may causedevelopmentalorreproductiveproblems.Thesemustbe consid- ered when registering a pesticide. Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment discusses issues that are essential components of the contemporary pest management arena. The chapter topics include: Chapter 1: A description of the major policy considerations that have shaped federal IPM programs over the past three decades. Chapter 2: A description of the approaches to nonchemical pest manage- ment;discussionsofdefinitionsofbiologicalcontrol,benefitsandlimita- tions, and its ecological basis. Chapter 3: An in-depth discussion of major pesticide use trends in the UnitedStates;theeffectsofsuchfactorsaspesticideproductivity,farm programs,andpesticideregulationsonuse;andchanginglawandpolicy. Chapter4:Anintroductiontopesticidesafetyandtheframeworkofhealth riskassessment,specificallypesticideriskassessmentandecologicalrisk assessment. Chapter5:Adescriptionoftheprocessesoftransportandfateofpesticides in the environment. It examines dissipation, leaching, and degradation and models for predicting these processes. Chapter 6: A discussion of the analytical process as it is practiced in the regulatoryarena,includingapproachestomonitoringthefoodsupplyin many countries around the world. Chapter7:Theissuesofpestmanagementrelatedspecificallytolow-acre- age,high-valuecrops.Thereareeconomicandotherissuesforpesticide manufacturers and producers of minor crops. Chapter 8: A discussion of the importance of pesticide resistance for pest managementinagricultureandhumanhealthprotectionanddescription of a publicly available resistance database. Chapter 9: A review of efforts to increase pesticide applicator safety and to improve the efficacy and effectiveness of the application techniques. Chapter10:Ananalysisofthecurrentstateofthecropprotectionindustry andaprojectionofthefuture.Thediscussionincludescompanymergers and acquisitions, generic pesticide producers, seed companies, new chemistries of pesticides, plant biotechnology, and major trends in the industry. It is my hope that readers will find this book an informative reference on pest management in the modern world. Willis B. Wheeler