Perspectives in Psychology INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY This series of titles is aimed at A-level psychology students in sixth forms, further education colleges and on degree courses and those wishing to obtain an overview of psychology. The books are easy to use, with comprehensive notes written in coherent language; clear flagging of key concepts; relevant and interesting illustrations; well- defined objectives and further reading sections to each chapter; and self-assessment questions at regular intervals throughout the text. Published INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Ann Birch and Sheila Hayward DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (Second Edition) Ann Birch BIOPSYCHOLOGY Sheila Hayward COGNITIVE PROCESSES Tony Malim SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Second Edition) Tony Malim RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS Tony Malim and Ann Birch COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY Tony Malim, Ann Birch and Sheila Hayward PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY (Second Edition) Alison Wadeley, Ann Birch and Tony Malim PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition Alison Wadeley Ann Birch Tony Malim M MACMILlAN © Alison Wadeley, Ann Birch and Tony Malim 1992, 1997 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition 1992 Second edition 1997 Published by MACMILLAN PRESS LT D Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-67507-6 ISBN 978-1-349-14273-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-14273-6 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 Copy-edited and typeset by Povey-Edmondson Tavistock and Rochdale, England Cartoons by Sally Artz To my mother and late father with love and admiration A.W. Contents List of Figures ix Preface xi 1 Psychology: Historical Sketch 1 I Early Beginnings 1 II Structuralism and Functionalism 4 III Associationism and Behaviourism 7 IV Gestalt Psychology 10 V Psychoanalysis 13 Further Reading 17 2 Theoretical Approaches to Psychology 19 I The Physiological Approach 20 II The Psychodynamic Approach 25 III The Behaviourist (or Learning Theory) Approach 29 IV The Cognitive Approach 34 V The Humanistic (or Phenomenological) Approach 41 VI Which Approach? 48 Further Reading 50 3 Issues and Debates in Psychology 53 I Reductionism 53 II Free Will and Determinism 59 III The Heredity-Environment Issue 68 Further Reading 78 4 Controversies in Psychological Research 81 I Psychology and Science 81 II Biases in Psychological Research 94 Further Reading 109 vii viii Contents 5 Ethics in Psychology 111 I Ethics in Psychological Research with Human Participants 111 II The Wider Responsibilities of Psychologists 121 III Psychological Research and the Use of Animals 133 Further Reading 149 6 Controversial Applications of Psychological Research 151 I Advertising, Propaganda and Warfare 152 II Psychometric Testing 170 Further Reading 183 7 Psychology in Action 185 I Pure Research 187 II Applied Research 197 III Career Openings for Psychologists 204 Further Reading 219 Bibliography 220 Index 235 List of Figures 1.1 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation 12 1.2 Structure of the Personality (Freud) 15 2.1 The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory 38 2.2 A Representation of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 44 3.1 The Hebb/Vernon Model of Intelligence 76 4.1 The Hypothetico-Deductive Method of Theory Formation 87 4.2 Some Dimensions of Cultural Difference 97 4.3 Types of Bias in Psychological Theories 106 5.1 A Summary of the 1993 BPS Ethical Guidelines for Research with Human Participants and Some Comments on their Use 113 5.2 Ethical Issues in Socially Sensitive Research and Reasons to be Cautious 131 5.3 A Summary of Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research 141 5.4 The Bateson Model 145 6.1 Some Techniques Used in Persuasive Communications 159 6.2 Some Persuasion Techniques and How to Resist Them 166 6.3 A Selection of 'Psywar' Research Areas 169 7.1 Areas of Pure Research 188 7.2 Broadbent's Filter Model of Selective Attention 189 7.3 Routes to a Career in Occupational Psychology 208 7.4 Career Path to Become a Chartered Clinical Psychologist 210 7.5 Career Path to Registration as a Chartered Counselling Psychologist 211 7.6 Career Path for Entry to Educational Psychology 214 7.7 Career Paths to Become a Chartered Forensic Psychologist 217 ix Preface to the Second Edition This book aims to provide those engaged in the study of psychology with an overview of psychological science. It begins with an account of the historical background of psychology, looking at different strands within its development from being a branch of philosophy to its emergence as a science. Chapter 2 examines different theoretical approaches which have developed and which currently influence psychological theory and practice. Chapter 3 presents a discussion of major issues and debates in psychology, such as the heredity/environment debate, reductionism and free will and determinism. Chapter 4 examines controversies in psychological research, including the use of the scientific method and biases in psychological research. Ethical issues in psychology are explored in Chapter 5, and Chapter 6 examines some contro- versial applications of psychological research, for example advertis- ing, propaganda and warfare. Finally, Chapter 7 looks at vocational fields open to psychologists. The authors have attempted to present this overview simply and concisely in the form of comprehensive notes. There is, of course, a thin dividing line between clarity and succinctness on the one hand and oversimplification and distortion on the other. Every effort has been made to avoid the latter. Psychology is a rich and varied discipline containing many complex ideas. Some of these cannot be adequately expressed briefly; therefore at the end of each chapter there are suggestions for appropriate further reading. For the independent student each chapter begins with objectives to be met during the study of the chapter and each section within chapters ends with self-assessment questions, so that the reader may test his/her understanding of the section. The reader is advised to work through the text a section at a time and to consider the self- assessment questions as they present themselves and again after further reading has been undertaken. The authors believe that this book will meet a long-felt need and that readers will find it both enjoyable and useful in relation to their xi