‘Expertly tailored towards the needs of the student of personality, intelligence and ‘There are many textbooks on this topic, individual differences… comprehensive, up to date and very clearly set out with a wealth of supplementary material.’ but few as comprehensive and accessible.’ Dr Teresa Rushe, University of Ulster Dr Marcus Munafò, University of Bristol ‘A wonderful companion for students taking courses in individual differences. Strengthened by its international scope and helpful learning aids, this is a useful reference work for students throughout their studies.’ Dr Susan Rasmussen, University of Strathclyde ‘Provides a modern, international coverage of the key issues in individual differences research. It looks great, offers valuable and extensive study aids and fi ts our course requirements exactly.’ Professor Paddy O’Donnell, University of Glasgow Richly illustrated and packed with examples, Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence, Second edition, continues to offer accessible and in-depth coverage of the major theories, methods, fi ndings and debates in this fascinating subject. This comprehensive new edition includes: • Four new chapters, covering Health and illness, Well-being and personality disorders, Ideas and debates in personality, and Psychometric testing. • Extensively revised and updated chapters which include the latest research throughout. • A range of features to stimulate and support learning, such as highlighted Key terms and Connecting up, which links different topics covered in the book. Second Edition Visit the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby to explore resources including: • Three additional chapters: Academic Argument and Thinking, Statistical Terms, and Personality, Research Ethics. • Weblinks and commentary on online journals to help students better understand the research process. • Exam and esay questions to alow students to consolidate their understanding. Individual Differences Dr John Maltby is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Leicester. and Intelligence Dr Liz Day is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at Sheffi eld Hallam University. Professor Ann Macaskill is at Sheffi eld Hallam University and is a Chartered Health Psychologist. John Maltby, Liz Day and Ann Macaskill Cover image © Getty Images www.pearson-books.com CVR_MALT2908_02_SE_CVR.indd 1 29/10/09 10:46:37 Personality, Individual Differences Maltby, Day and Macaskill and Intelligence Second Edition A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page i Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence Visit the Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence, Second edition Companion Website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby to find valuable student learning material including: Three additional web-only chapters to help develop your understanding of and skills in academic argument and thinking, statistical terms and research ethics Multiple choice questions on each chapter to help test your learning Additional essay questions to give you practice at exam-style questions Advanced Reading section containing a variety of current research papers that enable you to key into current issues and gain ideas for your independent projects Annotated links to relevant sites on the web A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page ii About the Authors Dr John Maltby is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Leicester. He has over 100 publications in the area of personality and individual differences. Dr Liz Day is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at . She has over 40 publications in the area of individual differences. She has also trained as a Clinical Hypnotherapist. Professor Ann Macaskill is at and is a Chartered Health Psychologist and trained in cognitive behaviour therapy. She has published exten- sively, with current research in individual differences, health and well-being. A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page iii Second Edition Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence John Maltby University of Leicester Liz Day Ann Macaskill A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page iv Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk First published 2007 Second edition published 2010 © Pearson Education Limited 2007, 2010 The rights of John Maltby, Liz Day and Ann Macaskill to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. ISBN: 978-0-273-72290-8 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Maltby, John, 1969- Personality, individual differences, and intelligence / John Maltby, Liz Day, Ann Macaskill. — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-273-72290-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Personality. 2. Personality and intelligence. 3. Individual differences. I. Day, Liz. II. Macaskill, Ann. III. Title. BF698.9.I6M35 2009 155.2—dc22 2009035726 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 13 12 11 10 09 Typeset in 9.5 Minion by 73 Printed and bound by Rotolito Lombarda, Italy The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests. A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page v Brief Contents Guided Tour xvii Preface xxi Acknowledgements xxv Part 1 Personality 1 Chapter 1 Personality Theory in Context 2 Chapter 2 The Basis of the Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality 20 Chapter 3 Developments of Freudian Theorising 42 Chapter 4 Learning Theory Perspectives on Personality 70 Chapter 5 Cognitive Personality Theories 102 Chapter 6 Humanistic Personality Theories 126 Chapter 7 The Trait Approach to Personality 154 Chapter 8 Biological Basis of Personality I: Genetic Heritability of Personality and Biological and Physiological Models of Personality 178 Chapter 9 Biological Basis of Personality II: Evolutionary Psychology and Animal Studies of Personality 208 Chapter 10 Further Ideas and Debates in Personality: Personality and Culture 230 Part 2 Intelligence 263 Chapter 11 An Introduction to Intelligence 264 Chapter 12 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence 280 Chapter 13 The Use of Intelligence Tests: What Questions Emerge from the Measurement of Intelligence? 308 Chapter 14 Heritability and Socially Defined Race Differences in Intelligence 336 Chapter 15 Further Discussions and Debates in Intelligence: Sex Differences in Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence 374 Chapter 16 The Application of Personality and Intelligence in Education and the Workplace: The Introduction of Other Intelligences 410 Part 3 Further Debates and Applications in Individual Differences 445 Chapter 17 Further Debates and Applications in Individual Differences: An Introduction 446 Chapter 18 Optimism 458 Chapter 19 Irrational Beliefs 482 Chapter 20 Embarrassment, Shyness and Social Anxiety 504 Chapter 21 Interpersonal Relationships 528 Chapter 22 Social Attitudes 558 Chapter 23 Well-being and Personality Disorders 584 Chapter 24 Individual Differences in Health and Illness 614 Chapter 25 An Introduction to Psychometric Testing 636 Glossary G1 References R1 Index I1 THE FOLLOWING ADDITIONAL MATERIAL CAN BE FOUND ON THE WEBSITE (www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby) Chapter 26 Academic Argument and Thinking 678 Chapter 27 Statistical Terms 686 Chapter 28 Research Ethics 696 A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page vi A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page vii Contents Guided Tour xvii Defence mechanisms 29 Preface xxi Repression 30 Acknowledgements xxv Denial 30 Projection 30 Reaction formation 31 Part 1 Personality 1 Rationalisation 31 1 Personality Theory in Context 2 Conversion reaction 31 Phobic avoidance 32 Key themes 2 Displacement 32 Learning outcomes 2 Regression 32 Introduction 3 Isolation 32 General population perspectives: implicit Undoing 32 personality theories 3 Sublimation 33 Problems with implicit theories 4 Clinical applications of Freudian theory 33 How is personality defined? 4 Evaluation of Freudian theory 34 Lay definitions of personality 4 Description 34 Psychological definitions of personality 5 Explanation 35 The aims of studying personality 5 Empirical validity and testable concepts 35 The source of the term ‘personality’ 7 Comprehensiveness 37 Approaches to studying personality: Parsimony 37 idiographic versus nomothetic 8 Heuristic value 37 Describing personality 9 Applied value 37 Distinctions and assertions in personality research 9 Final comments 37 Effects of personality versus situational effects 10 Summary 38 Measurement issues 11 Connecting up 39 Strands of personality theorising 11 Critical thinking 39 The clinical approach and its history 11 Going further 40 Individual differences’ emphasis on personality Film and literature 41 and its history 12 Studying personality as a personal experience 13 3 Developments of Freudian Theorising 42 Reading critically and evaluating theories 14 The cultural context of personality theories 17 Key themes 42 Final comments 18 Learning outcomes 42 Summary 18 Introduction 43 Connecting up 18 Individual psychology of Alfred Adler 44 Critical thinking 18 Inferiority feelings 44 Going further 19 Personality development in Adlerian terms 45 Birth order 46 2 The Basis of the Psychoanalytic Characteristics of the neurotic personality 46 Approach to Personality 20 Adlerian treatment approaches 47 Evaluation of Adler’s individual psychology theory 48 Key themes 20 Carl Jung and analytic psychology 49 Learning outcomes 20 Structures within the psyche 50 Introduction 21 Jungian personality types 53 Description of Freud’s theory of personality 21 Jung’s conception of mental illness and its treatment 55 Levels of consciousness 21 Evaluation of Jung’s theory 56 The nature of human beings and the source The psychology of Karen Horney 57 of human motivation 23 Essentials of Horney’s theoretical position 58 The structure of the personality 25 The development of the personality and The development of personality 26 the neurotic personality 58 A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page viii viii CONTENTS Defence mechanisms 61 Albert Ellis and Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 112 Penis envy and female masochism 63 Origins of the theory of Rational-Emotive Evaluation of Horney’s theory 64 Behaviour Therapy 112 Final comments 66 Rational and irrational thoughts 114 Summary 66 The importance of perception and Connecting up 67 the subjective worldview 115 Critical thinking 67 Development of the individual 118 Going further 68 The basic model of Rational-Emotive Film and literature 69 Behaviour Therapy 119 Sources of psychological disturbance 120 4 Learning Theory Perspectives Applications of Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 120 on Personality 70 Research evidence for effectiveness of Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 121 Key themes 70 Contentious issues 121 Learning outcomes 70 Overall evaluation of cognitive approaches 121 Introduction 71 Description 121 Introduction to learning theory 72 Explanation 121 The clinical perspective within classical conditioning 74 Empirical validity 122 The radical behaviourism of B. F. Skinner 75 Testable concepts 122 Attempts to apply learning theory approaches Comprehensiveness 122 to personality 78 Parsimony 122 The stimulus–response model of personality Heuristic value 122 of Dollard and Miller 79 Applied value 122 Albert Bandura and social learning theory 81 Final comments 122 Learning within Bandura’s model 83 Summary 123 Personality development in social learning theory 84 Connecting up 123 Self-efficacy as a self-regulatory process 84 Critical thinking 124 Increasing self-efficacy ratings 85 Going further 124 Measuring self-efficacy 86 Film and literature 125 Julian Rotter and locus of control 87 The impact of locus of control on behaviour 88 Walter Mischel 90 6 Humanistic Personality Theories 126 The impact of Mischel 94 Key themes 126 Evaluation of learning theory approaches 94 Learning outcomes 126 Description 94 Introduction 127 Explanation 95 Historical roots and key elements of Empirical validity 95 the humanistic approach 128 Testable concepts 96 Abraham Maslow and self-actualisation 128 Comprehensiveness 96 Human nature and human motivation 128 Parsimony 96 Hierarchy of needs 130 Heuristic value 96 Discussion of basic needs 132 Applied value 97 Characteristics of self-actualisers 132 Final comments 97 Personality development 134 Summary 97 Mental illness and its treatment in Connecting up 98 Maslow’s approach 134 Critical thinking 99 Evaluation of Maslow’s theory 135 Going further 99 Carl Rogers and person-centred therapy 136 Film and literature 100 Basic principles underlying the theory 137 Self-actualisation 137 5 Cognitive Personality Theories 102 Effect of society on self-actualisation 138 Key themes 102 Developmental impact on the child of Learning outcomes 102 their parent’s self-concept 140 Introduction 103 The role of the actualising tendency Theory of personal constructs of George A. Kelly 104 in development 141 The view of the person in Kelly’s theory 104 Rogers’ conceptualisation of Concepts within Kelly’s theory 104 psychological problems 143 Personality development according to Kelly 109 The principles of Rogerian counselling 143 Assessing personality in personal construct theory 109 The role of the therapist or counsellor 144 Clinical applications of personal construct theory 111 Evaluation of Rogers’ theory 147 A01_MALT2908_02_SE_FM.QXD 10/24/09 1:23 PM Page ix CONTENTS ix Final comments 149 Problems with the representativeness of twin Summary 150 and adoption studies 191 Connecting up 151 Assortative mating 192 Critical thinking 151 Changing world of genetics 192 Going further 152 A framework for considering heritability in personality 193 Film and literature 152 Psychophysiology, neuropsychology and personality 194 Eysenck’s biological model of personality and arousal 195 7 The Trait Approach to Personality 154 Gray’s BAS/BIS theory 197 Cloninger’s biological model of personality 200 Key themes 154 Empirical evidence for biological theories of personality 201 Learning outcomes 154 The central nervous system and biological Introduction 155 personality dimensions 202 Emergence of personality traits 156 The autonomic nervous system and biological Defining personality traits 157 personality dimensions 202 The development of trait theories within psychology 157 Consideration of biological theories of personality 203 Sheldon and somatypes 158 Final comments 204 Early lexical approaches to personality and the lexical Summary 204 hypothesis 158 Connecting up 205 Gordon Allport 159 Critical thinking 205 Raymond Cattell and the emergence of Going further 206 the factor analytic approach 161 Film and literature 206 Types of traits 162 Contribution of Cattell 165 Hans Eysenck’s trait theory of personality 166 9 Biological Basis of Personality II: Eysenck’s structure of personality 166 Evolutionary Psychology and Animal Studies Research evidence for Eysenck’s types 169 of Personality 208 Psychopathology and Eysenck’s Key themes 208 therapeutic approach 170 Learning outcomes 208 Eysenck’s contribution to trait theorising 170 Introduction 209 The five-factor model 170 Evolutionary theory 209 Evidential sources for the five-factor model 170 Evolutionary psychology and adaptation 210 Evaluation of the Big Five and trait approaches 173 Evolutionary personality and personality and Final comments 174 individual differences psychology 213 Summary 174 An introduction to evolutionary personality Connecting up 175 psychology: Buss’ theory of personality Critical thinking 175 and adaptation 213 Going further 176 How individual differences arise through Film and literature 177 cooperation: the example of leadership 214 Life history and personality 216 8 Biological Basis of Personality I: Consideration of the evolutionary theory Genetic Heritability of Personality of personality 219 and Biological and Physiological Animals and their personality 220 Models of Personality 178 Animals and personality: a historical context 220 Key themes 178 Within-species versus cross-species Learning outcomes 178 comparisons 221 Introduction 179 Methods in animal personality research 221 Behavioural genetics 179 Reliability and validity of animal Behavioural genetics: basic ideas 179 personality research 222 How the influence of genes is assessed in Animal personality: the emergence of behavioural genetics 179 the five-factor model of personality 223 Methods for assessing genetic heritability Animal personality: informing evolutionary theories of personality 181 of personality? 224 Genetic heritability estimates and personality 182 Consideration of animal personality research 224 Considerations within behavioural genetics and Final comments 226 personality 185 Summary 227 Conceptions of genetic heritability and Connecting up 227 the environment 186 Critical thinking 228 Different types of genetic variance 186 Going further 228 Shared and non-shared environments 186 Film and literature 229