Personal Diplomacy in the EU At a time when the economic troubles and bailouts of Greece and other Euro- pean economies are casting signifi cant doubt on the future viability of the Eurozone and the EU, it is crucial to examine the origins of the political will and leadership that is necessary to move the integration process forward. This book makes a signifi cant conceptual and empirical contribution by elucidating the extent to which the integration process hinges not on institutions and norms, but on the relations among leaders. Vogt conducts a comparative diplomatic history of three critical junctures in the process of European integration: the creation of the Common Market (1955–1957), British accession (1969–1973), and the introduction of the Euro (1989–1993). He illustrates how personal diplomacy, leadership constellations, and the dynamics among leaders enable breakthroughs or inhibit accords. He also reveals how the EU’s system of top- level decision-making that privileges institutionalised summitry has operated in the past and suggests – in a separate chapter – why it has come to atrophy and prove more dysfunctional of late. Roland Vogt is Assistant Professor of European Studies at the University of Hong Kong. Routledge Advances in European Politics For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com 120 Policy Making at the Second Tier of Local Government in Europe What is happening in Provinces, Counties, Départements and Landkreise in the on-going re-scaling of statehood? Edited by Xavier Bertrana, Björn Egner and Hubert Heinelt 121 The Politics of Trauma and Peace-Building Lessons from Northern Ireland Cillian McGrattan 122 Eurozone Politics Perception and reality in Italy, the UK, and Germany Philip Giurlando 123 Politics of Identity in Post-Confl ict States The Bosnian and Irish experience Edited by Éamonn Ó Ciardha and Gabriela Vojvoda 124 Unequal Europe Social divisions and social cohesion in an old continent James Wickham 125 Clientelism and Economic Policy Greece and the Crisis Aris Trantidis 126 Challenges to Democracies in East-Central Europe Edited by Jan Holzer and Miroslav Mareš 127 Iceland’s Financial Crisis The Politics of Blame, Protest, and Reconstruction Edited by Valur Ingimundarson, Philippe Urfalino and Irma Erlingsdóttir 128 Personal Diplomacy in the EU Political leadership and critical junctures of European integration Roland Vogt Personal Diplomacy in the EU Political leadership and critical junctures of European integration Roland Vogt First published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Roland Vogt The right of the Roland Vogt to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Vogt, Roland (C. Roland) author. Title: Personal diplomacy in the EU : political leadership and critical junctures of European integration / by Roland Vogt. Other titles: Personal diplomacy in the European Union Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2016. | Series: Routledge advances in European politics ; 128 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifi ers: LCCN 2016020627 | ISBN 9781138651715 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315624648 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: European federation—History. | European Union—History. | Europe—Economic integration—Political aspects. | European Union countries—Foreign relations. | Political leadership—European Union countries. Classifi cation: LCC JN15 .V627 2016 | DDC 341.242/2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020627 ISBN: 978-1-138-65171-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-62464-8 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC To Marina, Andrew, and James Contents Preface viii Introduction 1 PART I Leadership as a conceptual framework 17 1 Making sense of critical junctures in European integration 19 2 The infl uence of leadership: personal diplomacy and risk-taking 37 PART II Leadership and critical junctures of European integration 51 3 Personal diplomacy and trust, 1955–1957 53 4 Changes in leadership constellations, 1969–1973 94 5 Problem-solving leadership, 1990–1993 136 6 What’s next? From leadership to crisis management 178 C onclusion 191 Glossary and abbreviations 199 Bibliography 201 Index 225 Preface Since the end of World War II, Europe has made a remarkable transition. Out of the ruins of war, barbarism, and division has emerged a wealthy, peaceful, democratic, and resourceful continent. Yet today the sentiments of many Euro- peans are not those of joy about the accomplishments of the past but those of anxiety about an uncertain and increasingly insecure future. Europe’s elected representatives are perceived as no longer being able to decisively confront the challenges the continent is facing. From unemployment to the Eurozone debt crisis, from problems with immigration to the threats of Jihadi terrorism, from the rise of nationalist and anti-Islamic populist parties to the public’s apathy to unresponsive and self-serving bureaucracies, there is a sense that politics merely muddles through rather than tackling the problems at hand. As a diplomatic historian, I have for a long time been interested in the way ideas, identities, norms, and people shape the conduct of foreign policy. Unfor- tunately, much of the study of foreign policy has gradually come to privilege conceptual parsimony over nuance and rich historical detail. I am somewhat sceptical of catch-all theoretical explanations of why countries behave the way they do. The world is too complex, eclectic, and diverse to fi t into the neatness of theories of international relations. This book is an endeavour to illustrate that European integration – a key transformative process in today’s Europe – is not just a product of geopolitics or functional institutionalisation. As I was conducting the archival research for this book, I was struck by the sheer volume of information politicians and offi cials at the highest level of government receive on a daily basis. Everybody in the machinery of government looks to them – the presidents, prime ministers, and chancellors – for guidance, cues, and signals of how to conduct affairs with other countries. Internally, cabinets, parties, and governing coalitions have diverging factions and often opposing foreign policy preferences. Our heads of government are surrounded by advisors and offi cials, but their advice is frequently tentative and contradictory. What our elected leaders tend to fall back on to make sense of this onslaught of information are their own political instincts, personal experiences, historical analogies that come to mind, and consultations with their foreign counterparts. This is what an analysis of personal diplomacy is getting at. Preface ix When reading about foreign policy in Europe today, we hear a lot about what the UK, France, or Germany are doing, but we hear much less about the persons who are actually in charge of this process. We assume that the conduct of foreign policy is something larger than the individuals in offi ce. But the state papers in archives are full of documents in which offi cials ask ministers for permissions and ministers ask prime ministers for decisions. Offi cials prepare for all kinds of options and eventualities, but the decisive impetus for foreign policy decisions always comes from the top. The overall argument of this book might not be new to some or fi nd favour with everyone. I am not saying that leaders can decide it all, but merely that little is gained for our understanding of how foreign policy works if we ignore who they are, what they think and do, and how they interact. Without under- standing the obstacles our decision-makers face and the pressures they are under, it will be diffi cult to make sense of the growing disarray that is threatening the very fabric of the project of European unity. This book is the product of one individual researcher doing a lot of archival and documentary research. Yet it benefi ted enormously from myriad discussions, debates, arguments, and consultations with multiple friends, colleagues, and fel- low researchers. They provided valuable criticism, feedback, advice, and support. They have challenged my viewpoints and inspired me to think in new and unforeseen ways, opening my eyes to seeing our world in a different light. My most special thanks goes to those mentors and professors who have left an indel- ible imprint on my own thinking about international affairs: Wayne Cristaudo, James K. Oliver, Mark J. Miller, and José Ramón Montero Gibert. Much gratitude also goes to Sebastian Kaempf, Santiago Andrés Engelhardt, Martin Chung Chi Kei, and many others with whom I have talked at length about this book and many other global issues. I would like to thank Andrew Linklater, William Bain, Graeme Davies, Tim Dunne, Michael Foley, Roland Bleiker, Roger Scully, and Sander Gilman for their comments and suggestions. At the University of Hong Kong, where the book was completed, I am heavily indebted to my wonderful colleagues, who have been supportive of my research efforts and have been helpful in so many ways: Stefan Auer, Andreas Leutzsch, James Fichter, Bert Becker, Paul Urbanski, Li Chong, Wong Heung-Wah, Christopher Hutton, John Carroll, John Wong, and Louise Edwards. I remain especially grateful to Kendall A. Johnson, who as head of school provided constant personal and academic support, encouragement, and mentorship. At Routledge, I would like to thank Simon Bates, Brenda Foo, and their teams for their professionalism, support, and effi cient handling of the review, editing, and publication process. My interest in history and politics is in large part due to my parents, Martin and Heilwig Vogt. Yet my greatest individual and most heartfelt debt goes to my wife, Marina Ma Vogt, and my sons, Andrew and James. With their love, compassion, and affection they show and remind me every day what really mat- ters in life. They are the bedrock of my life. Hong Kong January 2016