People Of Ancient Assyria People Of Ancient Assyria Jorgen Laessoe Translated from the Danish by F. S. Leigh-Browne Published 1963 A.D. Assyrian International News Agency Books Online www.aina.org 1 People Of Ancient Assyria CONTENTS FOREWORD........................................................................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................4 I.............................................................................................................................................................................9 THE WRITTEN SOURCES.............................................................................................................................9 II.........................................................................................................................................................................12 CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN MESOPOTAMIA.................................................................................12 III........................................................................................................................................................................25 THE PHENOMENON THAT WAS ASSYRIA............................................................................................25 (A) THE OLDEST ASSYRIA..................................................................................................................25 (B) HURRIAN INTERLUDE.....................................................................................................................48 (C) ASSYRIAN EMPIRE...........................................................................................................................54 ( . 1350-612 B. C.).....................................................................................................................................54 (cid:0) IV........................................................................................................................................................................70 ASSYRIANS AND HURRIANS IN THE ZAGROS.....................................................................................70 V.........................................................................................................................................................................86 ASSYRIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................86 FOOTNOTES.....................................................................................................................................................88 2 People Of Ancient Assyria FOREWORD AM indebted to Professor M. E. L. Mallowan, Director of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq (Gertrude Bell Memorial), for permission to reproduce photographs I took during the excavations at Nimrud. The three maps in this book were prepared by M. E. Knop, Chief Topographical Officer of the Geodetic Institute, Copenhagen, on the basis of my sketches. My sincere thanks are due to him for this outstanding contribution. Danish Oriental research owes a considerable debt to the Egyptologist, Professor C. E. Sander-Hansen, Ph.D. In thankful recognition of his interest and support over many years, I beg Professor Sander-Hansen to accept the dedication of this book to himself. J. L. 3 People Of Ancient Assyria INTRODUCTION AS Assyria merely a more brutal, more uncivilized and less interesting offshoot of the culture created by Sumerians and Babylonians in Southern Mesopotamia at the dawn of history? Do the countless Assyrian reliefs that fill our museums give a complete picture of the phenomenon that was Assyria? Was the contribution of this people to world culture merely an incredibly effective military organization? Is it a true picture of Assyria that the reliefs and annals give us, with their presentation of war chariots, archers, battering-rams surrounding besieged cities, the punishment of prisoners of war, and the triumphal march of the Assyrian army through the realms of the Near East? Have we no evidence of the human element behind this phenomenon? How far may we rely on the Biblical descriptions of the cruelty of the Assyrian armies and the depravity of Assyrian cities? How are we, who can look back on the incredible events of the European wars of religion, on the conduct of Europeans towards the Indians of America, and on man’s recent treatment of his fellow-man, to judge these Assyrians? The rather answer to many of these questions is to be sought they in the personal documents of the time than in the official inscriptions, in the letters Assyrians wrote to one another rather than in the annals of their rulers. Truth resides more often in the letters from one human being to another: distortion of facts often insinuates itself more easily into public proclamations intended for contemporary or subsequent acceptance. Therefore, in an attempt to rehabilitate the Assyrians and to provide a truer picture on which to base their reputation, their official inscriptions are, with few exceptions, excluded from this book. The basis of presentation here consists of historical sources that must in every respect be regarded as primary, namely the correspondence discovered in excavating the archives of Assyrian kings and governors. It is impossible to offer such a presentation without mentioning the achievements of a number of Assyriologists. The Mari letters that form the basis of Chapter III (n) have been published and edited by a group of French and Belgian scholars among whom G. Dossin, of Liege, must have pride of place. His collaborators in the publication of these archives have been C.-F. Jean of Paris, J.-R. Kupper of Liege, J. Bottero of Paris, and A. Finet of Charleroi, whose work, published in the series Archives Royales de Mari I-VI (Paris, 1950-54) and XV (Paris, 1954), has been used as the basis of the present account. To this must be added a long sequence of articles in the periodicals Syria and Revue d’Assyriologie. J.-R. Kupper has undertaken a special investigation of the Bedouin in the Mari area in his book Les Nomades en Mesopotamie au temps des Rois de Mari (Paris, 1957). This is supplemented in respect of the Isin-Larsa period by Dietz Otto Edzard: Die (cid:145)Ziveite Zwischen.Zeit’ Babyloniens (Wiesbaden, 1957). The inscriptions from Nimrud (the Assurnasirpal stele, pp. 58 ff., and Esarhaddon’s treaty with the Mede Ramataia, pp. 65 ff.) were first dealt with by D. J. Wiseman (then of the British Museum) in the periodical Iraq (Vols. 14 [1952], pp. 24-44, and 20 [1958], pp. 1-99, with Plates 1-53, respectively). The Sargon Chronicle translated on pp. 19 was published by L. W. King in Chronicles Concerning Early Babylonian Kings, II, pp. 113-119 (London, 1907); the Sargon inscription on p. 19 was first published by A. Poebel in Historical and Grammatical Texts (Philadelphia, 1914) as No. 34. The Sumerian king-list quoted in Chapter II was edited by T. Jacobsen in The Sumerian King List (Chicago, 1939), while the Assyrian king-list used in Chapter III was edited by I. J. Gelb in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 13, pp. 209-230 (Chicago, 1954). The text of the Old Akkadian letter mentioning the first appearance of the Gutians in Mesopotamia (p. 21) was published by S. Smith in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in connexion with his article Notes on the Gutian Period in the volume for 1932, pp. 295-308. The Sumerian and Babylonian year- names used for dating in southern Mesopotamia have been collected and discussed by the German scholar A. Ungnad in Reallexikon der Assyriologie, xii Vol. II (Berlin-Leipzig, 1938), under the entry (cid:145)Datenlisten’ (pp. 131-196): the Assyrian eponym-lists (catalogues of officials holding the post of limmu, used for dating in northern Mesopotamia) have been treated by Ungnad under the entry (cid:145)Eponymen’ of the same work (pp. 412- 457). For the neo-Assyrian period the last-named article is supplemented by Margarete Falkner’s important contribution, Die Eponymen der spatassyrischen Zeit, in the periodical Archiv fur Orientforschung, Vol. 17, pp. 100-120 (Graz, 1954-55). The latest history of the kingdom of Mittanni is by R. T. O’Callaghan: Aram Naharaim (Analecta Orientalia, 26, Rome, 1948); and that of the Hurrians in general by I. J. Gelb in his book Hurrians and Subarians (Chicago, 1944). The comprehensive material on Hurrian personal names from Yorghan Tepe has been dealt with by I. J. Gelb, P. M. Purves, and A. A. MacRae in Nuzi Personal Names (Chicago, 1943). The middle Assyrian manual on the breeding of horses, mentioned on p. 52, has been assembled by E. Ebeling in 4 People Of Ancient Assyria Bruchstucke einer mittelassyrischen Vorschriftensammlung fur die Akklimatisierung and Trainierung von Wlagenpferden (Berlin, 1951). The grounds plans of the acropolis of Nimrud (Fig. 3) and Fort Shalmaneser (Fig. 4) have been (cid:0) (cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:3) reproduced respectively from Vols. 19 (Plate i) and 21 (Plate xxiii) of the periodical (London, 1957 and 1959). Reports by M. E. L. Mallowan and D. Oates on the work of excavation at Nimrud have appeared yearly in Iraq, beginning with Vol. 12 (1950). The standard inscription of Assurnasirpal was published by L. W. King (cid:2) (cid:6)(cid:7) (cid:8)(cid:9) (cid:10)(cid:11) (cid:12) (cid:13) (cid:14) (cid:7) (cid:8)(cid:9) (cid:7) (cid:7) (cid:16) (cid:1) (cid:14)(cid:2) in (cid:4) (cid:5) (cid:5) (cid:5) (cid:15) (cid:4) , Vol. I, pp. 212-221 (London, 1902). The inscriptions of Shalmaneser III from the fort at Nimrud have been published by the present author in Iraq (Vol. 21, 1959, pp. 28-41, with Plate xii), and a statute of Shalmaneser III with inscription in Iraq (Vol. 21, pp. 147-157, with Plates xl-xlii). A number of the texts from Fort Shalmaneser of which incidental mention is made have not yet been published. (cid:11) (cid:12) (cid:18) (cid:11) (cid:12) (cid:19) (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:20) (cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:21) (cid:6)(cid:12) (cid:10)(cid:7) (cid:22) (cid:2) Of the letters from Tell Shemshara, a number have been published in my book (cid:17) (cid:17) (cid:23) (cid:1) (cid:12) (cid:6)(cid:14)(cid:19) (cid:14) (cid:2) (cid:1)(cid:16) (cid:24) (cid:12)(cid:25) (cid:8) (cid:1) (cid:10) (cid:5) (in the series of archaeological and art-historical monographs issued by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Vol. 4, No. 3, Copenhagen, 1959). The letter quoted on p. 84 appeared with a commentary in the periodical Acta Orientalia, Vol. 24, pp. 83-94 (Copenhagen, 1959). A definitive edition of all the texts from Tell Shemshara is in preparation. The excavations at Tell Shemshara undertaken by the Danish Dokan Expedition in the summer of 1957 were made possible by a joint grant from the Carlsberg Foundation and the Danish Government Foundation for the Promotion of Science; after the actual expedition had been completed, the Carlsberg Foundation in addition supported research on the excavated material by a series of grants. The Rask-Orsted Foundation (the Danish Foundation for International Research) made it possible for a number of the members of the Dokan Expedition to participate in the excavations at Nimrud in the spring of 1957 before their own work in Iraqi Kurdistan. The Dokan Expedition received assistance in many practical ways from the Royal Danish Legation in Iraq and from Mr J. G. Campbell, of Messrs Binnie Deacon and Gourley of London, Resident Engineer in charge of the construction of the Dokan Dam. Thanks to these institutions and individuals are implied in every mention of the results of the Dokan Expedition. Thanks are also due in another direction to H. E. Niji al-Asil, the former Director-General of the Iraq Department of Antiquities, and his successor Sayyid Taha Baqir, both of whom supported the expedition in its practical and scientific activities in every possible way. The members of the Director-General’s staff contributed to making the co-operation between the Iraqi authorities and the Danish expedition so exemplary, both during the excavation and in the years after its conclusion in August 1957 I am grateful to the Carlsberg Foundation for the grants that made it possible for me to travel to Iraq in 1956 to join the British expedition at Nimrud and in 1959-6o enabled me in the course of a protracted stay in Baghdad to complete work on the Shemshira texts which are now housed in the Iraq National Museum. Furthermore, my thanks are due to Professor Max Mallowan and to the British School of Archaeology in Iraq which in 195 8 invited me to participate in the Nimrud expedition as epigraphist, as well as to David Oates for his hospitality at Nimrnd in the summer of 1960. The translations of the texts quoted in this book vary occasionally from earlier renderings, though it is not practicable here to give detailed justifications for such variations. The system of chronology (i.e. the dates employed) is firmly established as far back as the Middle Assyrian period; as to the earlier periods, it may well be that future discoveries will necessitate a slight adjustment of the absolute chronology, though the relative chronology will remain unaffected. I have decided that the most practical course is to employ the chronology given in the latest textbook on the ancient history of the Near East, and have therefore co-ordinated the dating with that (cid:12) (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:14) (cid:11) (cid:10)(cid:12) (cid:20) (cid:12) (cid:7) (cid:6)(cid:10)(cid:12) (cid:8) (cid:1) (cid:20) (cid:12) (cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:7) (cid:14)(cid:12) given in Hartmut Schmokel’s (cid:26) (cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:4) (cid:5) (cid:27) (cid:5) (Leiden, 1957). Names are reproduced in forms transcribed from Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian texts where there is no generally accepted Biblical or other form. Thus I have used the name Tukulti-ninurta, but employed a rendering like Tiglath-Pileser because the latter name has come down to us in a Hebrew version of the Assyrian Tukulti-apil- esharra. Sharrum-kin is given as Sargon, Assur-nasir-apli as Assurnasirpal: Nabu-kudurri-usur becomes Nebuchadnezzar. As to the pronunciation of the names and words I have quoted, it should be observed that the (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:7) circumflex accent (e.g. kin) indicates a long vowel. - - indicates a sound as in English shall. Special forms of and (cid:10) (cid:7) , such as occur in Semitic languages with emphatic articulation, are not distinguished in this work from the normal (cid:10) (cid:11) (cid:21) (cid:11) and . The Sumerian and Akkadian (often transcribed (cid:28) ) is pronounced approximately as (cid:0) in the German ach: (cid:2) (cid:7) (cid:19) (cid:2) (cid:11) (cid:1) (cid:1) (cid:2)(cid:25) (cid:11) (cid:2) thus (cid:29) is read as (cid:145)jasmach’ and (cid:4) as (cid:145)Arrapcha’. (cid:30) in Akkadian words represents a sound like English y (cid:2) (cid:31) (cid:14)(cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:18) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:3) (cid:7) (cid:10) in you, but in Arabic and Turkish words (e.g. (cid:30) and (cid:5)(cid:29) ) the sound corresponds to (cid:29) in (cid:29) . In the translations of texts, dots within square brackets [. . . .] indicate a break in the original text, whereas omissions made by the author are indicated by dots without brackets. Words in round brackets () provide an 5 People Of Ancient Assyria amplification that is obvious from the text itself: additions in square brackets [ ] comprise a modern explanation or comment. Expressions such as (cid:145)Semites’, (cid:145)Hurrians’, etc., are used as linguistic descriptions; (cid:145)a Semite’ is to be understood as a person speaking a Semitic language: nothing is thereby implied as to racial characteristics or racial association. Our knowledge in this field is severely limited and differentiation on such a basis is impossible to establish fully. The existence of a Hurrian population such as is mentioned on p. 49 is not proved by the isolated occurrence of personal names of Hurrian type: a man with a Hurrian name could have a father whose name was Semitic (p. 49). The nature of the population in any given place is indicated rather by the fact that the allocation of names, as indicated by extensive textual material, follows to an overwhelming extent the norm of a particular language, and by the circumstance that the spoken language of the district in question can be shown to have been that language. Even where the written language was Akkadian, as was the case for a very long period over very large areas of the Near East, peculiarities of orthography, of the choice of words, or sentence structure often clearly indicate that another language was actually spoken. The Plates The photograph reproduced on Plate 10 (b) was kindly provided by Mr G. M. Binnie, whose firm, Messrs Binnie, Deacon and Gourlep, Civil Engineers, provided the plans for the Dokan Dam, which they built for the Government of Iraq. The remaining photographs in the book were taken by the author. Of these, Plates 7 (b) and 8 (the latter in colour), have previously appeared in The Illustrated London News (17 January 1959, p. 100, and Plate ii) ; Plates 13 (b) and 16 are included in my book The Shemshara Tablets: a Preliminary Report (1959; see p. 4) as Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. The portrait of Sheikh Abd al-Halaf al-Ankud (Plate 1) is published with my greetings to the village of Shirgat and thanks for its firm friendship. Both at Nimrud and at Tell Shemshara Abd al-Halaf was the spokesman and foreman of the workmen: at Shemshara, where the locally recruited labour force consisted of Kurds from the villages of the district, the organization of co-operation between them and a small group of experienced Arab workers from Shirqat demanded a measure of tact and acuity possessed by but few. Like his fellow-countryman, the Baghdad fisherman Hassan (Plate 2), he is endowed with good humour, a sense of fun, authority, and sensitivity. Adb al-Halaf’s feeling for the unspoken has struck me as incomprehensible ever since our first meeting. Our conversations had to be conducted in Arabic, in which, with uncanny telepathy, he was able to put the right words into a beginner’s mouth or read the thoughts for which the Arabic words failed me. His patience, his care, his clarity would provide a model for every school teacher. He has most certainly taught me more than I have ever taught him. He is one of the few of his generation--he was 42 when the photograph was taken--to read and write Arabic, an accomplishment he acquired by study on his own. In Shirqat he took the initiative towards the erection of a school building; after making representations fox several years to such high authorities as the Ministry of Education in Baghdad, he succeeded in 1959 in obtaining two teachers for the village. His influence in Shirqat is considerable; as (cid:19) (cid:11) (cid:10)(cid:2) (cid:1) (cid:28) , the popularly elected headman, he has a species of official authority, but his actual power is based on the fact that he is head of one of the village’s oldest and most respected families. For archaeological expeditions to Iraq (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:14)(cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:10)(cid:14) the name of Shirqat, and the expression (cid:15) used for its inhabitants, have particular significance. The village lies at the foot of the ruins of Assur. When a German expedition began in i~o3 to excavate this, the most southerly of the Assyrian capitals, the foundations were laid of a tradition that still persists. (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:14)(cid:1) (cid:3) (cid:2) (cid:10)(cid:14)(cid:7) The were engaged every year for work on the excavations, which were continued until the outbreak of World War I, and in this way a group of Arab excavators was established whose number steadily grew. Boys who began by carrying the earth from the excavations in baskets were then by way of promotion entrusted with a spade or hoe, later with a brush and trowel. Some came to specialize in walls, others concentrated on problems arising from the uncovering of fragile small objects. The next generation, and the one after it, learnt from their elders. There are very few foreign expeditions to Iraq that do not make the shirgati the backbone of their labour force: almost all call upon a larger or smaller group of these experts, as required, and they are paid comparatively highly. Men from Shirgat are also employed on the excavations undertaken by the Iraqi Directorate of Antiquities: occasionally the best of them are engaged by the conservation department of the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad. The oldest shirgati working at Nimrud began his career as a basket boy, abu trab ((cid:145)father of earth’), for the German expedition to Assur, and was for this reason called (cid:145)the old man from Assur’. (cid:7) (cid:11) (cid:14)(cid:1) (cid:2) (cid:10)(cid:14) An experienced (cid:15) has acquired an assuredness in handling newly excavated Assyrian antiquities that a European archaeologist can only obtain from long experience. When a large number of cuneiform tablets were found at Tell Shemshara in a very short space of time, it was possible to entrust much of the work of lifting these documents with complete confidence to a man with years of experience, Ahmad al-Halaf al- 6 People Of Ancient Assyria Ankizd, a younger brother of Abd al-Halaf. Plate 14 (b) shows Ahmad engaged in the dramatic task of making sure that such a tablet would not fall into fragments of its own weight if an attempt were made to lift it. Cuneiform tablets are found in many varying conditions, partly depending on the quality of the clay of which the tablet is formed, partly on its salinity and on the salinity of the earth that has come to surround it. Salt crystals in the clay of a tablet have often split its surface and formed cracks that can be sufficiently deep to cause the separate fragments to fall apart when the tablet is moved. Along the cracks the surface bearing the written symbols is particularly liable to damage. It is therefore important for the tablet to be lifted complete, so that later the whole can be treated under laboratory conditions. During an excavation, this is achieved by the use of a cellulose adhesive of a consistency suitable for the requirement of any situation according to the condition of the clay tablet. A contrast to this difficult work of preserving a document possibly of historic importance, of which-as is obvious from Ahmad’s attitude there is no duplicate, is represented by Plate 14 (a). Assurnasirpal’s (cid:145)standard inscription’ from Nimrud (p. 57), of which this is a detail, stands there monumental and clear, carved in stone and indelible. The inscription (also shown on the jacket of this book) is available in so many copies that hardly anyone knows exactly how many there are. The typical Assyrian can be discerned on three photographs from Nimrud, showing a winged creature with an animal’s body and human head: the facial characteristics must be presumed to portray the physiognomy of Assurnasirpal (Plates 3 (b), 4 and 5). Plate 6 shows a beardless court official, presumably a eunuch, represented on a relief from the palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin, a ruin-mound known now by the name of Khorsabad, lying not far from Mosul toward the north-east. Iraq, with its sparse rainfall, must supplement the water from precipitation and from the rivers by installations to make use of subsoil water. Plate 9 (b) shows a hoist set up for this purpose. The motive power is provided by a donkey or camel attached to the horizontal arm of the device; the animal, often blindfolded, walks round and rotates the cog-wheel on the vertical axle. By means of this wheel the power is transmitted to the horizontal (underground) axle, on which a further wheel fitted with scoops brings the water to the surface- or sometimes, if the water table lies deeper, by means of an endless chain with buckets. The scoops or buckets tip out the water into a flume, which takes it on its way to be distributed over the fields. Water-hoists of this kind were of course unknown to the Babylonians and Assyrians, for the transmission of power by cog-wheels seems to have been a Hellenistic invention. Representations on Assyrian reliefs and Babylonian cylinder-seals show, instead, acquaintance with a bucket suspended from a pole, distribution of water from which was facilitated by a counter-weight. Sennacherib introduced certain improvements in techniques of operation for Assyrian wells; but we have no precise indication of the equipment or function of such devices. A number of dams, some completed, some still under construction, make their contribution to the utilization of river water in modern Iraq. One of the most important dams has been built near the village of Dokan in Iraqi Kurdistan (see map on p. 74), where the Little Zab river breaks through the mountains in the Torba Gorge. The photographs on Plate 1o show the rugged hills around Dokan, a kind of landscape not usually associated with Mesopotamian archaeology. Plate 10 (a) is a view from Dokan to the north-east in 1957, when the dam had not yet come into use: on Plate 10 (b) the same area is shown, with the lake that formed in 1959 and submerged the whole plain south of Rania. The village of Mirza Rustam then lay at the bottom of the lake: Bazmusian had become an island at its northern end, and the water reached the foot of Tell Shemshira. Soon Kuwari’s old home town will be completely lost. On the Shehrizor Plain, where a dam across the Diyala River is nearing completion south of Sulaimaniya, at Darband-i-Khan, Iraqi archaeologists are working this summer (1960) to save the most important ancient monuments before this area too is submerged. Plates 9 (a) and 11 (a) show Kurdish villages. Aqra, the chief village of the Surchi Kurds, in the Qara Dagh mountains 50 miles north-east of Mosul, lies hidden in a valley with steep escarpments on either side; it is only after passing a final jutting crag that it is possible to see the houses of the village towering u on the mountainside From the (cid:7) (cid:3) top most houses the , the bazaar street of the village, can be seen hundreds of feet below. In 74 B.C. an Assyrian king, Sargon H, described these mountain regions in the following words: I marched between Nikippa and Upi, high mountains covered with trees of every kind, (mountains) whose interior is a wilderness, where passes are awe-inspiring, where shadows spread as in a cedar wood, and where the traveller does not see the sun’s light. I crossed over the river Buja, that flows between them, no fewer than 26 times, and my troops were not daunted by its floods. The mountain Simirria, a mighty peak, rising like a spear point whose summit reaches above the mountain chains where dwells the mistress of the gods, (a mountain) whose peak supports the sky above and 7 People Of Ancient Assyria whose roots below stretch to the midst of the underworld-that is like the dorsal of a fish, and allows no passage from side to side, and whose ascent is as difficult from the front as from the back-into whose side ravines with mountain torrents are carved, terrible to behold-(a mountain) that is fit neither for the rolling of chariots nor for the galloping of horses, and whose paths are too difficult to lead assault troops along them.... With the obedience and inspiration vouchsafed to me by the god Ea and by the mistress of the gods, when they urged me to sweep over the enemy’s land, I provided my leading troops with bronze axes wherewith they broke into the tracts of the high mountain, as if it were a quarry, and perfected the road. Opposite Dokan is the village of Topzawa (Plate 11 [a]) where a Danish ethnographer, Henny Harald Hansen, B.Sc., had the opportunity during three months of the summer of 1957, with a grant from the Carlsberg Foundation, and in association with the Dokan Expedition, to study the life of Kurdish village women. In her book, Daughters of Allah (London, I96o) she has described her sojourn in Topzawa. The remainder of the plates in this book are described in the text as they occur. 8 People Of Ancient Assyria I THE WRITTEN SOURCES A SCRIPT was invented early in Mesopotamia. The oldest known inscriptions date back to the period immediately before 3000 B.C. Already at that period the writing material was clay-fine river clay-made into a small cushion-shaped tablet, usually of the size of a matchbox, but quite frequently smaller still. Tablets only two-fifths of an inch square are by no means uncommon; large ones exceptionally occur. The largest known tablets are that containing the treaty between the Assyrian king Esarhaddon and the Mede Ramataia (p. 65), 18 by 11.75 inches, and another of the same dimensions from the library of Assurbanipal at Nineveh. The written symbols were impressed into the clay with the sharp edge of a flat rod or stylus of wood; the script can consequently be described as three-dimensional. Originally the script was pictorial. Each symbol meant the object presented in the picture: each symbol was an ideogram or word-symbol. A writing system of this kind has limited possibilities, but in the first centuries of the history of its development the script in Mesopotamia served purposes that were also limited: it was only employed for bookkeeping-the establishment of regulation and control over the products of agriculture and craftsmanship. The oldest texts are lists of livestock and agricultural equipment; a system of numbers was soon developed, a stroke indicating units and a circular impression tens. About 2700 B.C. a revolution occurred in the development of the script. Perhaps it was an individual scribe who, with a stroke of genius, saw that the word-signs could be freed of their connexion with the meaning of the pictures and used as sound-symbols (phonograms): only the sound, the syllable represented by the word-symbol, was to count. The invention of the script can certainly be attributed to the Sumerians: its development as a phonetic script was also undoubtedly a Sumerian idea. A need to write down non-Sumerian personal names could have contributed to the change in the principle of the script from that of word-symbols to that of syllable-symbols: the fact that a large proportion of Sumerian words had but one syllable may have facilitated the process. With the freeing of the script from the narrower principles of picture-writing and word-signs came the possibility of setting down texts of every kind; and in the course of the third millennium inscriptions appear in ever-increasing numbers and in ever-increasing scope. Ideograms are still used to a limited extent, but in principle syllabic writing has replaced picture-writing. Alongside this change in the basic system of the script went a simplification of its outward form; the signs assume a stylized appearance,. and the curved lines of the original pictorial symbols are broken up into single components resembling small wedges, executed in such a way that the head of the wedge occurs at the point where the stylus is pressed deepest into the clay. This writing-system, known as cuneiform (i.e. ’wedge-writing’), was used in Mesopotamia and, beyond it, all over the Near East for as long as the Babylonian and Assyrian languages were vehicles of a distinct civilization. Cuneiform was transferred to other writing materials, the signs evolved by the use of stylus and clay being preserved in the new media. So we find the cuneiform script hammered into metals, chiselled out in stone, carved on cliff faces, cut on small cylindrical seals of agate, onyx, and haematite, and painted on the walls of buildings. Clay, however, is the writing material in which the great majority of cuneiform texts have been preserved for posterity. Where parchment, papyrus, or paper would have disintegrated in the extreme climatic vagaries of Iraq, clay has remained imperishable. On the tablets usually reddish in colour -elegant little symbols, which in contrast to Egyptian hieroglyphs are made up of purely abstract shapes, have preserved to the present day messages of every imaginable kind; the inspired decipherment of the nineteenth century and the penetrating research of the twentieth have opened up Mesopotamian culture and made such a wealth of written sources available to us that this literature, together with archaeological discoveries, has made certain periods of the ancient history of the country the best documented in the early cultural history of the Near East and Europe. Clay tablets with cuneiform script are occasionally found in the form of terracotta: the clay has been burned. In this way, the destruction of a building by fire in ancient times could lead to the preservation of the tablet, the heat of the flames having hardened the material. Inscriptions of particular importance were often baked in a kiln, when it was considered desirable to ensure the indestructibility of the text; thus the clay prisms of the Assyrian kings, containing the texts of their annals, are always found in terracotta and their state of preservation is perfect, apart from the possibility of their having been damaged by falling walls or destroyed by violence. Moreover, they were often buried under the comers of walls as foundation-inscriptions, and have thus been well protected. Cuneiform tablets are more often found in an unfired condition. Some of the difficulties in excavating such tablets have been discussed above (p. 6). The condition of unbumt tablets depends on various circumstances. Some tablets are composed of particularly fine sifted clay with low saline content. If they are 9 People Of Ancient Assyria found at some depth below the surface, and have therefore not been exposed to the seeping of rainwater, they often appear as though written yesterday. One Shemshira tablet, illustrated in Plate 15, is an example of such a text. Other tablets are composed of clay of poorer quality and do not withstand even the least attempt to cleanse them of extraneous impurities gathered from the earth in which they have lain. Salts in the surrounding earth can have such a deleterious effect on tablets that they appear with a crust of hard crystals, and if an attempt is made to remove this crust part of the surface of the tablet will come away, and some of the text is irreparably damaged. All unfired tablets are baked after their discovery irrespective of their condition. They are put in a kiln for a day or two and exposed to a temperature that is gradually brought up to about 700(cid:176)C. This transforms the clay into terracotta. After this treatment the tablet can be soaked in distilled water for some days or weeks to dissolve all salts. Not till this has been done is the document fit to be handled and suitable for detailed study. The scholarly treatment of a clay tablet demands in the first place experience in reading cuneiform from an original test. Handwriting and personal idiosyncrasies vary from scribe to scribe. It is a far cry from the regular fine calligraphy of the scribe who made a copy of the annals of an Assyrian king to the work of one who had the duty of writing a letter to dictation. Another essential requirement for the scholar dealing with a cuneiform document is an understanding of the text. Most Assyriologists who concern themselves with the editing of original texts begin, I think, with the reading of the tablet and the transcription of its text in order to acquire a first impression of its meaning. When this has been done, and the text is understood, it is copied out. This involves setting it down in a form corresponding exactly to its original appearance. For this, a kind of Indian ink is used that is suitable for photographic reproduction. In this way, the text is presented for the judgement of scholars, sometimes accompanied by photographs showing the front and the back, the top, bottom, and left and right edges: for the lines are inclined to carry on in the direction of the writing (left to right) over the right edge, so as to become involved with the text on the other side of the tablet. Likewise, the three remaining edges are often brought into use when the text has occupied more room than originally envisaged. Figs. 1 and 2 show my copy of the tablet seen on Plate 15: the front (Fig. 1) appears in the photograph. All the published texts of which I have made use in this book are available in editions that have been prepared in this manner. In the nature of things, the primary publication of a text must always consist of the copy made by the Assyriologist concerned. Accompanying photographs of the original text can be of use as a check, but can never be satisfactory by themselves. In the reading of the original the distribution of light and shade can be of decisive importance: it is essential to be able to turn the tablet in one’s hand in order to obtain clear contrasts. Although normally a cuneiform tablet is best read in a light coming from a position to the left and slightly above the tablet, sometimes the individual elements of a symbol are so ill-defined that the vertical wedges need a light coming from the left in a horizontal direction, while the horizontal wedges similarly need light from a point above the tablet: only in a copy drawn on paper is it possible to include all these observations in one presentation. Since others who have no access to the original must be able to make use of the copy and base further discussion on it, the conscientious, trustworthy and careful copying of cuneiform texts is a responsible task. The Sumerian word for a cuneiform tablet was dub; a scribe was called dub-sar, i.e. (cid:145)tablet writer’. Both these words were incorporated in Babylonian and Assyrian as loan-words, dub becoming tuppu and dub-sar becoming tupsharru. The Sumerian word was still current among the Aramaeans as tifsar. In the translations of letters given in this book, the word (cid:145)letter’ always represents the Babylonian-Assyrian tuppu. When the receipt of a letter was acknowledged, the formula was not (cid:145)I have read your letter’ but (cid:145)I have heard your tablet’. This fact, as well as the introductory words of the letter (cid:145)Say to so-and-so: thus says so-and-so’, indicate the basic principle of carrying a 10