F.L.E. STUDI Fondazione Luigi Einaudi 50 Studi 50 Y T GOOD GOVERNMENT, I X E GOVERNANCE, L P M HUMAN COMPLEXITY O C N A Luigi Einaudi’s legacy and M contemporary societies U H E, C Edited by N A PAOLO HERITIER and PAOLO SILVESTRI N R E V O G T, N E M N R E V O G D O O G Leo S. Olschki editore Firenze LEOS. 2012 OLSCHKI ISBN 9788822261618 Tutti i diritti riservati CASA EDITRICE LEO S. OLSCHKI Viuzzo del Pozzetto, 8 50126 Firenze www.olschki.it ISBN 9788822261618 CONTENTS PAOLOHERITIER–PAOLOSILVESTRI,Introduction.LuigiEinaudi: poised between ideal and real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pag. VII PART ONE THE EINAUDIANLEGACY: GOODGOVERNMENT ANDTHE RELATION BETWEENPRIVATE ANDPUBLIC MASSIMO L. SALVADORI, Luigi Einaudi. Reflections on the lifelong journey of a great Italian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 3 FRANCESCOFORTE,ThearchitectureofLuigiEinaudi’sgoodgovern- ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 13 FRANCOREVIGLIO,GovernmentandmarketfailuresinLuigiEinau- di and to-day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 33 GIUSEPPE GAROFALO,LuigiEinaudiandFedericoCaffe`:outlinesof a social policy for good governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 45 PAOLO SILVESTRI, The ideal of Good Government in Luigi Einau- di’s thought and life: between law and freedom . . . . . . . . . . » 57 PART TWO GOODGOVERNMENT ANDPUBLIC GOVERNANCE ALESSIO LO GIUDICE,Patterns of identity in the perspective of Eur- opean governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 101 JA´NOS FRIVALDSZKY, Good governance and right public policy . . . » 119 — V — CONTENTS ROBERTO CARANTA, Good administration in the age of governance Pag. 143 ANDRA´S ZS. VARGA, Legal control of administration: premise of good government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 155 ALESSANDRO CIATTI, Freedom of contract and good government. . » 173 ALBERTO ANDRONICO, The dark side of governance . . . . . . . . . . » 189 PART THREE GOVERNANCE ANDLIBERTY: THE COMPLEXITYOFTHE HUMAN FLAVIA MONCERI, Rethinking ‘good governance’. Complex societies and individual differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 207 MAGDA FONTANA, Policy in complex social systems . . . . . . . . . . » 221 FRANCESCO DI IORIO, Mind, market and open society in Hayek’s thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 235 ENZO DI NUOSCIO, The laic chooses critical reason. . . . . . . . . . . » 251 GRAZIANO LINGUA, The economy of images, or the symbolical hor- izon of social exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 261 PAOLO HERITIER, Useless non-preaching? The critical point and the complex anthropology of freedom in Luigi Einaudi . . . . . . . . » 275 PAOLO SILVESTRI, After-word. Invisible cities: which (good-bad) man? For which (good-bad) polity?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 313 List of contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 333 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » 337 — VI — PAOLO SILVESTRI AFTER-WORD. INVISIBLE CITIES: WHICH (GOOD-BAD) MAN? FOR WHICH (GOOD-BAD) POLITY? Ifyouchoosetobelieveme,good.NowIwilltellyouhow Octavia, the spider-web city, is made. There is a precipice between two steep mountains: the city is over the void, boundtothetwocrestswithropesandchainsandcatwalks. You walk on the little wooden ties, careful not to set your footin theopenspaces[...]. Thisisthefoundationofthecity:anetwhichservesaspas- sageandsupport.[...]Suspendedovertheabyss,thelifeof Octavia’s inhabitants is less uncertain than in other cities. Theyknowthenetcannotendurebeyondacertain limit.1 NowIshalltellofthecityofZenobia,whichiswonderfulin this fashion: though set on dry terrain it stands in high pilings[...]. Noonerememberswhatneedorcommandordesiredrove Zenobia’sfounderstogivetheircitythisform,andsothere isnotellingwhetheritwassatisfiedbythecityasweseeit today,whichhasperhapsgrownthroughsuccessivesuper- impositions from the first, now undecipherable plan. But what is certain is that if you ask an inhabitant of Zenobia todescribehisvisionofahappylife,itisalwaysacitylike Zenobiathatheimagines,withitspilingsanditssuspended stairways, a Zenobia perhaps quite different, a-flutter with bannersandribbons,butalwaysderivedbycombiningele- mentsofthatfirstmodel. Thissaid,itispointlesstryingtodecidewhetherZenobiais tobeclassifiedamonghappycitiesoramongtheunhappy. Itmakesnosensetodividecitiesintothesetwospecies,but rather into another two: those that through the years and thechangescontinuetogivetheirformtodesires,andthose in which desires eithererasethecity orareerasedbyit.2 1 I.CALVINO,Lecitta`invisibili[1972],Engl.transl.:Invisiblecities,transl.byW.Weaver[1974] (London,Vintage,1997),p.67.InthisafterwordIgenerallyadheredtotheabovecitedEnglishtran- slationofLecitta`invisibili,exceptincasesofcertainwordsoftheItaliantextwhosemeaning,inmy opinion,requiredadifferenttranslation,providedbymyselfwiththehelpofRachelBarrittCosta. 2 I.CALVINO,Invisiblecitiescit.,p.30. — 313 — PAOLOSILVESTRI After this long journey one might ask: what conclusions can be drawn from this collection? Which routes should be followed for our future research?HereIwouldventurenofurtherthana‘simple’sketchofastory,an account ofourownceaseless journey ofresearch and the good or bad society that men form by being together. This endeavor will be pursued by giving shape to the manifold and complex impressions I have drawn from a reading of the essays gathered together in this collection, but also from those that came out between 2008 and 2011, on the occasion of the celebrations for thesixtiethanniversaryoftheelectionofEinaudiasPresidentoftheRepublic (1948) and the fiftieth anniversary of his death (1961).3 It can hardly be a co- incidence, I would suggest, that in a time of crisis, even those holding the highest institutional offices of the Italian state felt the need to return to the symbolic, moral, intellectual and institutional figure of Einaudi.4 Perusal of this set of contributions has prompted me to reflect once more on a few un- frequentedpathsofEinaudi’sjourneyinsearchofagoodsociety.Iwillfollow his itinerary without any claim of exhaustiveness or systematic coherence: rather,Iwilladoptanarrativestyle(albeiteschewinganyliterarypretensions) with a sprinkling of elliptical and rhapsodic considerations whose allusive character will, hopefully, be of aid in relaunching the inquiry into the good polity and the relationship between man and society, individual and institu- tions. I trust that the reasons underlying this choice, which is not merely sty- listic,willbecomecleareruponcompletereadingofthisbook:fromtheintro- duction to the contributions and up to the end of this afterword. 1. As a first step towards explaining this point, let me start from the title, which interweaves allusions and analogies that will develop the thread of my discourse. The allusions refer to Italo Calvino’s famous work, Invisible cities, as well astotheallusiveuseIproposetomakeofit.Thusintheperspectiveadopted 3 Amongthesesee:R.EINAUDI(ed.),L’eredita`diLuigiEinaudi.Lanascitadell’Italiarepubbli- canaelacostruzionedell’Europa(Milano,Skira,2008);F.FORTE,L’economialiberalediLuigiEinau- di.Saggi(Firenze,Olschki,2009);R.MARCHIONATTI–P.SODDU(eds.),LuigiEinaudinellacultura, nellasocieta`enellapoliticadelNovecento(Firenze,Olschki,2010);A.GIGLIOBIANCO(ed.),LuigiEi- naudi: liberta`economica e coesione sociale (Roma - Bari, Laterza, 2010); N. ACOCELLA (ed.), Luigi Einaudi:studioso,statista,governatore(Roma,Carocci,2010);F.TOMATIS,Versolacitta`divina.L’in- cantesimodellaliberta`inLuigiEinaudi(Roma,Citta` Nuova,2011);then.127(September-October 2011)issueofthereviewResetpartlydedicatedtoEinaudi,pp.29-56. 4 See:M.DRAGHI,Prefazione,inA.GIGLIOBIANCO(ed.),LuigiEinaudi:liberta`economicaecoe- sionesocialecit.,pp.V-VII;G.NAPOLITANO,‘‘LuigiEinaudi:un’eredita`perilriformismoepertutti’’, Reset,n.128(November-December2011),pp.5-10. — 314 — AFTER-WORD.INVISIBLECITIES:WHICH(GOOD-BAD)MAN?FORWHICH(GOOD-BAD)POLITY? in thisAfterword,Invisiblecitiesisapresencefrom therealm ofallusion,and I believe it should awaken no impulse to analyse or recall the specific litera- ture on this work. Here I draw encouragement from Calvino himself who, spurred by the attempt of various commentators to pinpoint the ‘‘moral of thestory’’–whichhasoftenbeenfoundinitsconclusion–suggestedthatIn- visiblecitiesis‘‘abookbuiltlikeapolyhedron,andasforconclusions,theyare scattered everywhere, written all around its sharp corners, and it also has some that are no less epigrammatic or epigraphic’’ than its own conclusion.5 In this sense, I trust that an epigrammatic or epigraphic use of Invisible cities will not be taken as a forced interpretation, especially bearing in mind that it ismyownpersonalandingenuousre-reading.‘Ingenuous’atleastinthesense that, ‘from the incipit’, from the very beginning, whenever we open a book, enter into a dialogue, a relationship or research group, or embark on an indi- vidual line of exploration, we always find ourselves hovering between ‘to be- lieve’ and ‘not to believe’. ‘‘If you choose to believe me, good’’. At every new beginning we are constantly exposed to misunderstandings, face to face with the difficult interpretative-communicative situation such as that recurring throughout the dialogues between Marco Polo and Kublai Khan and narrated from the very incipit of the tale: It cannot be taken for granted that Kublai Khan believed everything Marco Polo saidwhendescribingthecitiesvisitedonhismissions[...].Inthelivesofemperorsthere is a moment which follows pride in the boundless extension of the territories we have conquered[...].Thereisasenseofemptinessthatcomesoverusatevening[...].Itisthe desperatemomentwhenwediscoverthatthisempire,whichhadseemedtousthesum of all wonders, is an endless, formless, ruin, that corruption’s gangrene has spread too far to be healed by our sceptre [...]. Only in Marco Polo’s accounts was Kublai Khan able to discern, through the walls and towers destined to crumble, the tracery of a pattern so subtle it could escape the termites’ gnawing.6 Furthermore, Calvino himself, faced with the question of the overall meaning of the story, wrote that ‘‘only the text itself, in its own form, can authorize or exclude this or that reading. As a reader among many, I can say that in chapter five, which at the very heart of the book develops a theme of lightness strangely associated with the city theme, there are some of the piecesIconsiderthebestasvisionaryevidence,andperhapsthesespideryfig- 5 I.CALVINO,‘‘ItaloCalvinoonInvisiblecities’’,Columbia,n.8(1993),pp.37-42,Ital.transl.: ‘‘Presentazione’’,inLecitta`invisibili(Milano,Mondadori,1993),p.X. 6 ID.,Invisiblecitiescit.,p.5. — 315 — PAOLOSILVESTRI ures(‘‘thincities’’orsuchlike)arethelightestzoneofthebook’’.Buthiscon- clusionwas:‘‘Iwouldhardlyknowwhatmoretosay’’.7AconclusionEinaudi himself might well have come to if he had been prodded by his critics into being explicit about the overall meaning of his search for good government. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the ‘story of good government’ is a message that always appeals to one’s own freedom and sensibility or to the response of a ‘you’ who reads, listens and re-interprets and re-writes or re-tells the story. KublaiasksMarco:–WhenyoureturntotheWest,willyourepeattoyourpeople the same tales you tell me? – I speak and speak, – Marco says, – but the listener retains only the words he is expecting. [...] It is not the voice that commands the story: it is the ear. –AttimesIfeelyourvoiceisreachingmefromfaraway,whileIamprisonerofa gaudyandunlivablepresent,whereallformsofhumansocietyhavereachedanextreme oftheircycleand thereisnoimaginingwhatnewformsthey mayassume. And Ihear, from your voice, the invisible reasons which make cities live, through which perhaps, once dead, they will come to life again.8 On the issue of analogies, one may find several family resemblances be- tweenInvisiblecitiesandtheresearchongoodgovernment:thoseIwilldevel- op later are just a few of the possible. But it is worth noting forthwith two fundamental analogies: one related to content, the other to form or style. The content-related analogy concerns the relationship between traveling and researching. Marco Polo’s journeys are to the Einaudian quest for good government as they are to our own research. In other words, here I assume the paradigm of the traveler-researcher. As regards form or style, perhaps it is time to do justice to Einaudi the preacher and storyteller, for his expository style is by no means a mere detail. Rather, it is the typical form in which the thoughts and sentiments that most deeplyaffectedhimtookshape.9Torecallourstartingpoint–thefertiledua- lityofEinaudi’sthought,theindividualandtheinstitutional–thisistrueboth for the Einaudi who reflects on the individual foundation of a good society – Einaudi the narrator of everyday stories of individual men, humble and falli- 7 ID.,Presentazionecit.,p.XI (italicsmine). 8 ID.,Invisiblecitiescit.,pp.123-124. 9 SeeV.DELLAVALLE,‘‘LalinguadiLuigiEinaudifraclassicismoepathos’’,inA.GIGLIOBIAN- CO (ed.),LuigiEinaudi:liberta`economicaecoesionesocialecit.,pp.138-154. — 316 — AFTER-WORD.INVISIBLECITIES:WHICH(GOOD-BAD)MAN?FORWHICH(GOOD-BAD)POLITY? ble, who learn through experience by ‘‘trial and error’’ – and also for the Ei- naudi who reflects on the institutional foundations of the good society: in- deed, the very portrayal of good government appeared to elude him save by casting it in the narrative-allusive mold. Finally, Calvino’s mention of ‘‘lightness’’, almost anticipating his spiritual testament,Sixmemosforthenextmillennium,mightwellsumupthesenseof Einaudi’s style as well as my reference to literature and why I consider it just another way of looking at the world: Wheneverhumanityseemscondemnedtoheaviness,IthinkIshouldflylikePer- seus into a different space. I don’t mean escaping into dreams or the irrational. I meanthatIhavetochangemyapproach,lookattheworldfromadifferentperspec- tive, with a different logic and with fresh methods of cognition and verification.10 2.Havingsaidthis,Einaudithenarratorofstoriesofconcretemencanbe found from as early as his first book, Un principe mercante [A merchant prince] (1900),11 where he relates the deeds of a self-made-man, an entrepre- neur who, undaunted by difficulties and failures, built a business empire in South America. It was a work that earned Einaudi the following compliment from a colleagueofhis: ‘‘you havebecome afine novelist economist,almosta Verneofpoliticaleconomy’’.ThisisalsothesameEinaudiwho,uponreturn- ing to his home town for the inauguration of a company, wrote the following dedication to its founders and their ‘‘vocation’’: Thousands,millionsofindividualswork,produceandsaveinspiteofeverything wecaninventtoputspokesintheirwheels,tothwartthem,discouragethem.Itisthe natural vocation that spurs them, not merely the thirst for money. Enthusiasm, the prideinseeingone’sbusinessgrowandprosper,seeingitacquirereputationandin- spiretrustinanevergreaterrangeofcustomers,expandtheindustrialplant,embel- lish the sites – all these aspects constitute a driving force of progress every bit as powerful as that of profit.12 Yet this is the Einaudi who, at the same time, was aware that economic activity and exchanges are not intrinsically self-founded (but what is?). In his Lectures on social policy, he introduces his students to the topic with the incipit: 10 I.CALVINO,‘‘Lightness’’,inID.,Sixmemosforthenextmillennium,P.Creaghtransl.(Lon- don,JonathonCape,1992),p.7. 11 L. EINAUDI, Un Principe mercante. Studio sulla espansione coloniale italiana (Torino, F.lli Bocca,1900). 12 ID.,Dedicaall’impresadeiFratelliGuerrino,Dogliani,September15,1960. — 317 — PAOLOSILVESTRI Have you ever been in a country town on the day of a fair? [...] That fair is a market,thatistosayaplacewhereonafixedday,hundredsofsellers[...]cometo- gether [...]. And from every direction, from the circle of villages and farmhouses aroundthelargetown[...]amultitudeofbuyersconvergetoacquirethethingsthey lack. The crowd of buyers and sellers is especially large at the Easter and All Saint’s Day fairs.13 This great narration of exchanges and human relationships is then fol- lowed by a colourful description of what lies in the background or ‘‘around the fair and affects it’’, precisely because the ‘‘market’’ is not ‘‘something that stands by itself’’: rather, it is also embedded and depends on legal, political, symbolic and moral institutions.14 Euphemia, where the merchants of seven nations gather at every solstice and equinox[...].Butwhatdrivesmentotravelupriversandcrossdesertstocomehere isnotonlytheexchangeofwares[...].YoudonotcometoEuphemiaonlytobuyand sell, but also because at night, by the fires all around the market, seated on sacks or barrelsorstretchedoutonpilesofcarpets,ateachwordthatonemansays–suchas ‘wolf’,‘sister’,‘hiddentreasure’,‘battle’,‘scabies’,‘lovers’–theotherstell,eachone, histaleofwolves,sisters,treasures,scabies,lovers,battles.Andyouknowthatinthe long journey ahead of you, when to keep awake against the camel’s swaying or the junk’s rocking, you start summoning up your memories one by one, your wolf will have become another wolf, your sister a different sister, your battle other battles, on your return from Euphemia, the city where memory is traded at every solstice and at every equinox.15 ThisisalsotheEinaudiwhowasawarethatthemarket,thestateaswellas anypolicyorany(good)governancearefoundedonacertainsenseofalimit, which he emblematically formulated in the doctrine of the ‘‘critical point’’. Hence, in this context the Einaudian lesson can be interpreted as an ethic of limit and finitude,16 of which the ‘economic’ is an emblematic figure. Andthisis hardlya storythat begins with theemergence of the market-econ- omy in modernity:it is a far older story,which Einaudi himself dated back to 13 ID.,Lezionidipoliticasociale(1949),partiallytransl.in‘‘Lecturesonthemarket’’,inID., Selected economic essays, L. EINAUDI, R. FAUCCI and R. MARCHIONATTI (eds.) (NY, Palgrave Macmillan,2006),pp.39ff. 14 Ibid.,57ff. 15 I.CALVINO,Invisiblecitiescit.,p.31. 16 SeeP.SEQUERI,L’umanoallaprova.Soggetto,identita`,limite(Milano,VitaePensiero,2002). — 318 —