AD-A22 540area handbook series Yugoslavia a country study E EtLECT JULO0 992 is un. ae its Yugoslavia a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Glenn E. Curtis Research Completed December 1990 ..,, . d-e7 L _ ai 92~j 6 On the cover: Muslim minaret, Skopje Third Edition, First Printing, 1992. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Yugoslavia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. - 3rd ed. p. cm. - (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DA pam ; 550-99) "Supersedes the 1982 edition of Yugoslavia: a country study, edited by Richard F. Nyrop."-T.p. verso. "Research completed December 1990." Includes bibliographical references (pp. 303-319) and index. ISBN 0-8444-0735-6 1. Yugoslavia. I. Curtis, Glenn E. (Glenn Eldon), 1946- II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Area handbook for Yugoslavia. IV. Series. V. Series : DA pam 550-99. DR1214.Y83 1992 91-40323 949.7-dc2O CIP Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-99 For sae by the Supenntennent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 A Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies-Area Handbook Program sponsored by the Department of the Army. The last page of this book lists the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation- ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com- mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States govern- ment posit.on, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel- comed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 iii Acknowledgments The authors are indebted to numerous individuals and organi- zations who gave their time, research materials, advice, and ex- pertise on Yugoslav affairs to provide data, perspective, and material support for this volume. The work of Steven L. Burg and Robert E. Bartos, authors of the Government and Politics and National Security chapters, respec- tively, of the previous edition of the Yugoslavia area handbook, supplied vital foundation material to the new authors of those chap- ters. Thanks also go to the Embassy of Yugoslavia and the Yugo- slav National Tourist Office (New York) for supplying the editor with a large number of photographs from which to choose. The expert photography of Charles Sudetic and Sam and Sarah Stulberg has added timely and picturesque images of Yugoslavia. And, in the final stages of updating current events in Yugoslavia, the firsthand insights of Paul Pajic of the Library of Congress were invaluable. Thanks also go to Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Coun- try Studies-Area Handbook Program for the Department of the Army. In addition, the authors appreciate the advice and guidance of Sandra W. Meditz, Federal Research Division coordinator of the handbook series. Special thanks also go to Marilyn L. Majeska, who managed editing and production, assisted by Andrea T. Merrill; to Kimberly Lord, who designed the book cover; to Carlyn Dawn Anderson, who designed the illustrations on the title page of each chapter; to David P. Cabitto, who provided graphics support and, together with Harriett R. Blood and the firm of Greenhorne and O'Mara, prepared maps; and to Tim Merrill, who compiled geo- graphic data. The following individuals are gratefully acknowledged as well: Sharon Costello, who edited the chapters, and Barbara Edg- erton and Izella Watson, who did the word processing. Cissie Coy performed the final prepublication editorial review; Joan C. Cook compiled the index; and Linda Peterson of the Printing and Process- ing Section, Library of Congress, prepared the camera-ready copt, under the supervision of Peggy Pixley. v Contents Page Foreword..................1 Acknowledgments........................ Preface................................ xi Country Profile.......................... x Introduction............................ xi Chapter 1. Historical Setting ... a*' 1C Charles Sudtic PRE-SLAV HISTORY ................................. 4 HISTORIES OF THE YUGOSLAV PEOPLES TO WORLD WAR 1.................6 The Slovenes .................................. 7 The Croats and Their Territories..................10 The Serbs and Serbia, Vojvodina, and Montenegro . .16 Bosnia and Hercegovina.........................22 Macedonia ................................... 25 THE BALKAN WARS, WORLD WAR I, AND THE FORMATION OF YUGOSLAVIA, 1912-18 .............. 26 The Balkan Wars and World War I ................ 27 Formation of the South Slav State..................28 The Kingdom of Yugoslavia ...................... 29 Political Life in the 1920s........................31 Economic Life and Foreign Policy in the 1920s ... 32 The Royal Dictatorship .......................... 33 The Regency .................................. 35 The Sporazum, Tripartite Pact, and Outbreak of World War II.............................36 YUGOSLAVIA IN WORLD WAR 11, 1941-45..............37 Partition and Terror............................37 The Resistance Movement........................39 POSTWAR YUGOSLAVIA ............................. 42 Communist Takeover and Consolidation ............. 42 The Yugoslav-Soviet Rift.........................45 Introduction of Socialist Self-Management............47 Nonalignment and Yugoslav-Soviet Rapprochement . .49 Reforms of the 1960s ............................ 50 vii Unrest in Croatia and Its Consequences in the 1970s ................................. 53 The 1974 Constitution ........................... 54 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment ..... 59 Charles Sudetic GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION.....................63 Topography .................................. 63 Drainage Systems..............................64 Climate......................................64 Pollution.....................................67 Population .................................... 67 YUGOSLAVIA'S PEOPLES............................69 Ethnographic History...........................69 Ethnic Composition ............................. 70 Languages .................................... 72 The Yugoslav Nations ........................... 73 SOCIAL GROUPS .................................... 89 The Peasantry ................................. 89 The Workers..................................92 The Political Elite and Intellectuals ................. 94 The Family...................................97 URBANIZATION AND HOUSING..................... 102 Housing ..................................... 102 Urban Problems...............................104 Guest Workers ................................ 104 RELIGION ......................................... 106 Demography and Distribution .................... 107 Eastern Orthodoxy.............................108 Roman Catholicism ............................ 110 Islam....................................... 112 Other Faiths................................. 113 EDUCATION ....................................... 113 History of Yugoslav Education....................113 Primary Schools...............................114 Secondary Education ........................... 115 Higher Education..............................116 HEALTH CARE AND SOCIAL WELFARE...............116 Disease and Mortality.......................... 116 Development of the Health Care System ............ 116 The Contemporary Health and Welfare Systems .... 117 viii Chapter 3. The Economy ........................ 121 Malinda K. Goodrich ECONOMIC HISTORY ............................. 124 World War II and Recovery .................... 124 Application of Stalinist Economics ................ 124 The First Five-Year Plan ....................... 125 Launching Socialist Self-Management ............. 127 The "Perspective" Five-Year Plan ............... 127 Overhaul in the 1960s ......................... 128 The Economic Reform of 1965 .................. 129 Adjustments in the 1970s ...................... 130 THE ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT MECHANISM ...... 131 Socialist Self-Management ...................... 131 Capital Ownership and the Market ............... 132 Planning and Pricing .......................... 134 Trade U nions ............................... 135 Government Revenue and Spending .............. 136 Banking .................................... 136 STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY ................... 138 Labor and Unemployment ..................... 138 Industry .................................... 139 Agriculture ................................. 144 Energy and Mineral Resources .................. 146 Transportation and Telecommunications ........... 150 FOREIGN TRADE ................................. 152 Historical Background ......................... 152 Exports and Imports .......................... 156 Trading Partners ............................. 157 Guest Workers and Tourism .................... 160 Foreign Exchange ............................ 162 MANAGING THE CRISIS OF THE 1980s .............. 163 Inflation and Foreign Debt ..................... 163 Living Standards ............................. 164 Regional Disparities .......................... 164 THE REFORMS OF 1990 ............................ 165 Chapter 4. Government and Politics ............. 169 Glenn E. Curtis POLITICAL EVOLUTION AFTER 1945 ................ 172 Breaking with the Soviet Union ................. 173 The 1963 Constitution ......................... 174 Post-Rankovi6 Diversification ................... 175 ix Political Innovation and the 1974 Constitution ...... 176 The Early Post-Tito Years ..................... 180 Reform in the 1980s .......................... 180 The Leadership Crisis ......................... 183 GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE ....................... 184 Federal Assembly ............................ 184 Federal Executive Council ...................... 185 State Presidency ............................. 187 Court System ............................... 189 Local Government and the Communes ............ 190 NONGOVERNMENTAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ... 192 League of Communists of Yugoslavia ............. 192 Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia ... 197 Trade Unions ............................... 198 Youth League of Yugoslavia .................... 199 Veterans' Association ......................... 199 REGIONAL POLITICAL ISSUES ..................... 200 Slovenia .................................... 200 Serbia ..................................... 202 Ko sovo .................................... 204 V ojvodina .................................. 206 C roatia .................................... 206 M ontenegro ................................. 208 Bosnia and Hercegovina ....................... 209 M acedonia .................................. 210 THE PUBLIC AND POLITICAL DECISION MAKING ... 211 Djilas, Praxis, and Intellectual Repression ......... 211 Intellectual Opposition Groups .................. 212 The M edia ................................. 213 C ensorship .................................. 214 FOREIGN POLICY ................................. 215 The Government Foreign Policy Mechanism ....... 216 Nonalignment ............................... 216 The Soviet Union ............................ 218 The United States ............................ 218 European Neighbors .......................... 219 The Middle East and Western Europe ............ 220 THE POLITICAL AGENDA FOR THE 1990s ........... 221 Chapter 5. National Security .................... 225 Karl Wheeler Soper DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMED FORCES ........... 228 Early Development ........................... 228 x W orld W ar II ............................... 229 Postwar Development ......................... 231 NATIONAL DEFENSE .............................. 233 Threat Perception ............................ 233 M ilitary Doctrine ............................ 235 Strategy and Tactics .......................... 236 DEFENSE ORGANIZATION ......................... 237 Government Organization for Defense ............ 238 The Military and the Party ..................... 241 Armed Services .............................. 243 Territorial Defense Forces ...................... 250 MILITARY MANPOWER ........................... 253 The Military and Society ...................... 253 Recruitment and Service Obligations ............. 257 Military Training and Education ................ 259 Mi litary Life ................................ 261 Ranks, Insignia, and Uniforms .................. 262 DEFENSE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY .......... 265 M ilitary Budget .............................. 266 Arms Procurement ........................... 267 FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS ................... 272 W arship Visits ............................... 273 Arm s Sales ................................. 273 M ilitary Exchanges ........................... 274 INTERNAL SECURITY ............................. 275 D issidence .................................. 276 Courts, Detention, and Punishment .............. 278 Internal Security Forces ........................ 280 Organization for Internal Security ................ 282 The Military in Domestic Peacekeeping ........... 283 Appendix. Tables ................................. 287 Bibliography ..................................... 303 G lossary ......................................... 321 Ind ex ............................................ 325 List of Figures I Administrative Divisions of Yugoslavia, 1990 ........... xxii 2 Military Frontier Province Between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires, ca. 1600-1800 .............. 14 3 Expansion of Serbia, 1804-1913 ..................... 20 4 South Slav Territories at Formation of Yugoslav State, 1918-19 ...................................... 30 xi