HANDBOOK of PSYCHOLOGY VOLUME 7 EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY William M. Reynolds Gloria E. Miller Volume Editors Irving B. Weiner Editor-in-Chief John Wiley & Sons, Inc. HANDBOOK of PSYCHOLOGY HANDBOOK of PSYCHOLOGY VOLUME 7 EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY William M. Reynolds Gloria E. Miller Volume Editors Irving B. Weiner Editor-in-Chief John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper.➇ Copyright ©2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Contents: v. 1. History of psychology / edited by Donald K. Freedheim — v. 2. Research methods in psychology / edited by John A. Schinka, Wayne F. Velicer — v. 3. Biological psychology / edited by Michela Gallagher, Randy J. Nelson — v. 4. Experimental psychology / edited by Alice F. Healy, Robert W. Proctor — v. 5. Personality and social psychology / edited by Theodore Millon, Melvin J. Lerner — v. 6. Developmental psychology / edited by Richard M. Lerner, M. Ann Easterbrooks, Jayanthi Mistry — v. 7. Educational psychology / edited by William M. Reynolds, Gloria E. Miller — v. 8. Clinical psychology / edited by George Stricker, Thomas A. Widiger — v. 9. Health psychology / edited by Arthur M. Nezu, Christine Maguth Nezu, Pamela A. Geller — v. 10. Assessment psychology / edited by John R. Graham, Jack A. Naglieri — v. 11. Forensic psychology / edited by Alan M. Goldstein — v. 12. Industrial and organizational psychology / edited by Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, Richard J. Klimoski. ISBN 0-471-17669-9 (set) — ISBN 0-471-38320-1 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 1) — ISBN 0-471-38513-1 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 2) — ISBN 0-471-38403-8 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 3) — ISBN 0-471-39262-6 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 4) — ISBN 0-471-38404-6 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 5) — ISBN 0-471-38405-4 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 6) — ISBN 0-471-38406-2 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 7) — ISBN 0-471-39263-4 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 8) — ISBN 0-471-38514-X (cloth : alk. paper : v. 9) — ISBN 0-471-38407-0 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 10) — ISBN 0-471-38321-X (cloth : alk. paper : v. 11) — ISBN 0-471-38408-9 (cloth : alk. paper : v. 12) 1. Psychology. I. Weiner, Irving B. BF121.H1955 2003 150—dc21 2002066380 Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Editorial Board Volume 1 Volume 5 Volume 9 History of Psychology Personality and Social Psychology Health Psychology Donald K. Freedheim, PhD Theodore Millon, PhD Arthur M. Nezu, PhD Case Western Reserve University Institute for Advanced Studies in Christine Maguth Nezu, PhD Cleveland, Ohio Personology and Psychopathology Pamela A. Geller, PhD Coral Gables, Florida Drexel University Melvin J. Lerner, PhD Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Volume 2 Florida Atlantic University Research Methods in Psychology Boca Raton, Florida Volume 10 Assessment Psychology John A. Schinka, PhD University of South Florida Volume 6 John R. Graham, PhD Tampa, Florida Developmental Psychology Kent State University Kent, Ohio Wayne F. Velicer, PhD Richard M. Lerner, PhD University of Rhode Island M. Ann Easterbrooks, PhD Jack A. Naglieri, PhD Kingston, Rhode Island Jayanthi Mistry, PhD George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia Tufts University Medford, Massachusetts Volume 11 Volume 3 Forensic Psychology Biological Psychology Volume 7 Educational Psychology Alan M. Goldstein, PhD Michela Gallagher, PhD John Jay College of Criminal Johns Hopkins University William M. Reynolds, PhD Justice–CUNY Baltimore, Maryland Humboldt State University New York, New York Arcata, California Randy J. Nelson, PhD Ohio State University Gloria E. Miller, PhD Volume 12 Columbus, Ohio University of Denver Industrial and Organizational Psychology Denver, Colorado Walter C. Borman, PhD Volume 4 Volume 8 University of South Florida Experimental Psychology Clinical Psychology Tampa, Florida Alice F. Healy, PhD George Stricker, PhD Daniel R. Ilgen, PhD University of Colorado Adelphi University Michigan State University Boulder, Colorado Garden City, New York East Lansing, Michigan Robert W. Proctor, PhD Thomas A. Widiger, PhD Richard J. Klimoski, PhD Purdue University University of Kentucky George Mason University West Lafayette, Indiana Lexington, Kentucky Fairfax, Virginia v To our parents, Hugh and Martha Reynolds and Joseph and Victoria Miller and to our former and current Teachers, Students, and Colleagues who have continued to fuel and inspire our desire for life-long learning. William M. Reynolds, PhD Department of Psychology Humboldt State University & Gloria E. Miller, PhD College of Education University of Denver Handbook of Psychology Preface Psychology at the beginning of the twenty-first century has Asecond unifying thread in psychology is a commitment becomeahighlydiversefieldofscientificstudyandapplied to the development and utilization of research methods technology. Psychologists commonly regard their discipline suitable for collecting and analyzing behavioral data. With as the science of behavior, and theAmerican Psychological attention both to specific procedures and their application Association has formally designated 2000 to 2010 as the in particular settings, Volume 2 addresses research methods “Decade of Behavior.” The pursuits of behavioral scientists in psychology. rangefromthenaturalsciencestothesocialsciencesandem- Volumes 3 through 7 of the Handbook present the sub- brace a wide variety of objects of investigation. Some psy- stantive content of psychological knowledge in five broad chologists have more in common with biologists than with areas of study: biological psychology (Volume 3), experi- most other psychologists, and some have more in common mental psychology (Volume 4), personality and social psy- with sociologists than with most of their psychological col- chology (Volume 5), developmental psychology (Volume 6), leagues.Somepsychologistsareinterestedprimarilyinthebe- and educational psychology (Volume 7). Volumes 8 through haviorofanimals,someinthebehaviorofpeople,andothers 12 address the application of psychological knowledge in inthebehavioroforganizations.Theseandotherdimensions five broad areas of professional practice: clinical psychology ofdifferenceamongpsychologicalscientistsarematchedby (Volume 8), health psychology (Volume 9), assessment psy- equalifnotgreaterheterogeneityamongpsychologicalpracti- chology (Volume 10), forensic psychology (Volume 11), and tioners,whocurrentlyapplyavastarrayofmethodsinmany industrial and organizational psychology (Volume 12). Each differentsettingstoachievehighlyvariedpurposes. of these volumes reviews what is currently known in these Psychology has been rich in comprehensive encyclope- areas of study and application and identifies pertinent sources dias and in handbooks devoted to specific topics in the field. of information in the literature. Each discusses unresolved is- However, there has not previously been any single handbook sues and unanswered questions and proposes future direc- designed to cover the broad scope of psychological science tions in conceptualization, research, and practice. Each of the and practice. The present 12-volume Handbook of Psychol- volumes also reflects the investment of scientific psycholo- ogy was conceived to occupy this place in the literature. gists in practical applications of their findings and the atten- Leading national and international scholars and practitioners tion of applied psychologists to the scientific basis of their have collaborated to produce 297 authoritative and detailed methods. chapters covering all fundamental facets of the discipline, TheHandbook of Psychologywas prepared for the purpose and the Handbookhas been organized to capture the breadth of educating and informing readers about the present state of and diversity of psychology and to encompass interests and psychological knowledge and about anticipated advances in concerns shared by psychologists in all branches of the field. behavioral science research and practice. With this purpose in Two unifying threads run through the science of behavior. mind, the individual Handbook volumes address the needs The first is a common history rooted in conceptual and em- and interests of three groups. First, for graduate students in be- pirical approaches to understanding the nature of behavior. havioral science, the volumes provide advanced instruction in The specific histories of all specialty areas in psychology the basic concepts and methods that define the fields they trace their origins to the formulations of the classical philoso- cover, together with a review of current knowledge, core liter- phers and the methodology of the early experimentalists, and ature, and likely future developments. Second, in addition to appreciation for the historical evolution of psychology in all serving as graduate textbooks, the volumes offer professional of its variations transcends individual identities as being one psychologists an opportunity to read and contemplate the kind of psychologist or another. Accordingly, Volume 1 in views of distinguished colleagues concerning the central the Handbook is devoted to the history of psychology as thrusts of research and leading edges of practice in their re- it emerged in many areas of scientific study and applied spective fields. Third, for psychologists seeking to become technology. conversant with fields outside their own specialty and for vii