Packaging in the Environment Edited by GEOFFREY M. LEVY CarnaudMetalbxo International NV Brussesl Belgium m SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. First edition 1993 © 1993 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1993 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1993 Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Excel Typesetters Co., Hong Kong ISBN 978-1-4613-5890-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-2133-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2133-4 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data available Preface Concern about the harm that industrial activities may cause the environ ment, means that all are now being scrutinised to assess their impact. Packaging is no exception. It is now high on the political agenda, in terms of the environmental issues which are targeted for immediate attention in industrially developed countries and is often perceived as a wasteful drain on non-sustainable resources and an unnecessary indulgence on the part of affluent societies. This book seeks to understand and respond to the variety of pressures packaging now faces, and to review and correct the many misconceptions that exist in relation to its environmental impacts. It has been structured to address the topical and critical areas for attention; it identifies and explains what are seen to be the main issues and discusses the responses being made to them in different parts of the world. More specifically, this book is intended to: • clarify the facts and dispel many of the myths surrounding the environmental aspects of packaging • explain and emphasise packaging's essential role in the workings of human society • review legislative and regulatory developments, the trends and the extent to which they are converging • consider what constitutes environmentally responsible packaging manufacture • discuss and compare the relative environmental merits and differ ences between the various packaging materials and systems • address the requirements for identifying and controlling manufac turing impacts and the role of environmental auditing in this process • explore the total context of value and impact in which packaging should be viewed • examine the rapidly developing science of lifecycle analysis together with the evaluation, interpretation and qualitative value judgements which yield 'cradle-to-grave' comparative lifecycle assessments • reflect upon the significance of used packaging waste within the totality of all wastes • describe the existing practices and the new challenges for domestic waste disposal • identify the benefits of integrated waste management systems lV PREFACE • assess the current methods for collecting used packaging waste • analyse new approaches to the recovery and recycling of packaging materials • review the key environmental issues, priorities, imperatives, actions, attitudes and trends that exist and can be anticipated in Europe, North America and Japan These are ambitious intentions but in a field that has, to date, been addressed constantly and variously in the media - because packaging inevitably 'touches' all of us - the fact is that with the exception of some instances where the subject has been considered thoughtfully and with appreciable insight, these are not the general rule, and it is more usual for it to be addressed only fragmentally and often without impartiality. I have endeavoured in this book to tackle comprehensively the key environmental issues that remorselessly impinge upon packaging profess ionals. I have gathered together a collection of internationally recognised experts, in their various fields of activity, to detail the complex realities and perceptions concerning packaging, and to establish a reference which can be built upon, as it undoubtedly must be, in the rapidly changing 'milieu' that is packaging in the environment. We believe that this book can serve the important function of in creasing awareness and proper understanding of both the role and valuable contribution that packaging makes to society and the ways in which the packaging chain - from the raw material suppliers through the packaging manufacturers and converters, the packaging users [packers and fillers], to the distribution, wholesale and retail trade - can ensure that their activities do not needlessly damage the environment. The book has been organised to address five of the most important public and political issues concerning packaging in the environment today: • Packaging's role in society • Legislative impacts and trends • Environmentally responsible packaging manufacture • Lifecycle assessment of packaging • Domestic waste disposal and the recovery and recycling of packaging materials Attention has been principally focused on Europe, North America and Japan, between and within which, there are differences, but these dif ferences concern the pace of environmental development and not its general direction, which is forever 'upward and onward' toward the goal of minimal environmental impact and, perhaps wishfully, anticipating the prospect of industrial activity that contributes zero environmental impact. The book is directed at all those concerned with the manufacture, use PREFACE v and distribution of packaging, including raw material suppliers, packaging manufacturer and converters, packaging users (fillers and packers) and traders (distributors, wholesalers and retailers). In particular it should be helpful to a wide range of management, be it production, sales and marketing, procurement, technical, or concerned with human resources. It will also be of interest to civil servants with environmental responsi bilities, as well as those involved in the management of waste - local government, waste management organisations and material recyclers. Without being too optimistic we believe that some politicians, local, national or supranational and of whatever hue, as well as environmental and consumer activists, could derive benefit from this publication. Finally, as the editor and the designer of the 'shape' of this book, my overall aim has been to establish an understanding of the essential role that environmentally responsible packaging plays in all societies - it is a necessity not an option. G.M.L. Editor's note added in proof Changes in the field of packaging in the environment continue to take place at a bewildering pace and none more so than in the legislative arena. As a result, it is important for the reader to refer continually to primary sources of legislation. Acknowledgements I express my heartfelt and sincere thanks to all the authors who have contributed to this book and to their families and organisations, with whose forebearance and co-operation, respectively, it has been realised. While the views expressed by the various authors, in their chapters, are clearly their own and not necessarily those of the organisations they represent, nor of the publisher or the editor, I subscribe to and support their overall intent. I also acknowledge and express my particular indebtedness to David Beynon, as a friend, a colleague and who throughout our business collaboration has often been an alter ego, in helping me to 'shape' this book. I further acknowledge, with enormous appreciation, the sympathetic consideration and help given me by Charlotte and Daniclla in the final preparation of the manuscript. To my company, CarnaudMetalbox, I acknowledge gratitude for helping to provide me with a continuously exciting and delightfully varied career, and more recently with the stimulating and ever changing 'environmental burden' of Director for Environment Affairs, without which role r would not have been able to tackle this endeavour. . Finally, to my children, William, Katie and Tom, thank you for tolerating my periods of absence. Contents 1 Introduction - myths, facts and realities 1 GEOFFREY LEVY 1.1 Overview 1 1.1.1 Why so much attention? 1 1.1.2 Who is the polluter? 2 1.1.3 The environment is not free 3 1.1.4 Being prepared for change 3 1.2 Attitudes 5 1.2.1 Rejecting the facts 5 1.2.2 Facts of the matter 6 1.2.3 Combating perceptions 6 1.3 Myths 8 1.4 Measuring-up 9 1.5 Interpreting the facts 11 1.5.1 The lifecycle approach 11 1.5.2 A model - neither simple nor complex 11 1.6 Environmental costs and burdens 13 1.7 Pre-empting the facts - recycling 15 1.8 Realities 19 1.8.1 The real nature of packaging 19 1.8.2 Perceptions are reality 21 1.8.3 Returnable or non-returnable packaging? 22 1.8.4 Adapting to change 24 1.9 A business issue 25 1.10 Legislation 27 1.11 A necessity not an option 30 1.11.1 Summary 30 1.11.2 Conclusion 31 References 32 2 Packaging's role in society 34 JANE BICKERSTAFFE and ELAINE BARRETI 2.1 Early packaging 34 2.2 Packaging for preservation 35 2.3 The supermarket revolution 37 2.4 Types of packaging 39 2.4.1 Primary, secondary and tertiary packaging 40 2.4.2 Returnable, non-returnable and recoverable packaging 41 2.4.3 Commodity packaging 42 2.4.4 Convenience and functional packaging 43 2.4.5 Luxury packaging 44 2.5 Functions of packaging 44 2.5.1 Containment and protection 44 2.5.2 Preservation 45 2.5.3 Communication 45 2.6 Product losses through spoilage 48 2.7 Costs of packaging 49 viii CONTENTS 2.8 Packaging reflects a changing lifestyle 50 References 52 3 Review of environmental legislation - The European Community 53 GABRIELLE H. WILLIAMSON 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 European Community environmental policy and regulation 54 3.2.1 European Community environmental policy 54 3.2.2 Legal framework for European Community environmental actions 55 3.3 Packaging and packaging waste in the context of European Community environmental legislation 56 3.4 Substance of European Community environmental legislation on packaging 58 3.4.1 Existing legislation 58 3.4.2 Proposed European Community legislation on packaging 60 3.5 Other European Community legislation affecting packaging 63 3.5.1 The 'eco-label' 63 3.5.2 The 'eco-audit' regulation 64 3.6 Overview of national measures 65 3.6.1 Germany 65 3.6.2 The Netherlands 67 3.6.3 France 69 3.7 Conclusion 70 Notes 71 4 Review of environmental legislation - North America 73 JEROME HECKMAN and JOHN FOLEY 4.1 Overview 73 4.2 U.S. regulation of solid waste disposal 73 4.2.1 The federal role - Environmental Protection Agency 74 4.2.2 Conflicts over interstate shipment of waste 74 4.2.3 Trends 75 4.3 Recycling 75 4.3.1 Federal regulation - Environmental Protection Agency and the Food and Drug Administration 75 4.3.2 Regulation of food packaging made from recycled materials 76 4.4 State and local regulation 77 4.4.1 Packaging bans based on recycling considerations 77 4.4.2 Trends 78 4.5 Environmental advertising and labeling 78 4.5.1 Federal regulation - Federal Trade Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency 78 4.5.2 State attorneys' general task force on 'green claims' 79 4.6 State regulation 79 4.6.1 Trends 80 4.7 Control of toxic substances in packaging 80 4.7.1 Federal regulation - impact of the National Environmental Policy Act on the Food and Drug Administration regulation of food-contact materials 80 4.7.2 Federal proposals to restrict heavy metal content of packaging 81 4.7.3 State regulation - restrictions on heavy metal content of packaging 81 4.7.4 California's Proposition 65 81 4.8 Impact on packaging 82 4.8.1 Interaction with federal law 82 4.8.2 Trends 82 CONTENTS IX 4.9 Conclusion 83 Notes 83 References 85 5 Environmentally responsible packaging manufacture 87 DAVID BEYNON 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Environmental management and organisation 88 5.2.1 Environmental policy and strategy 88 5.2.2 Assignment of responsibility 88 5.2.3 Environmental management objective 89 5.3 Role of the packaging manufacturer 89 5.3.1 'Role'summary 89 5.3.2 Associated environmental burdens 90 5.3.3 Direct impacts 90 5.3.4 Indirect impacts 90 5.3.5 Conflicts of choice 90 5.3.6 Perceptions and understanding 91 5.4 Categorisation of packaging environmental impacts 91 5.4.1 Container lifecycle 91 5.4.2 Lifecycle segmentation 93 5.4.3 'Upstream' effects 93 5.4.4 'Downstream' effects 93 5.4.5 Manufacturing effects 93 5.4.6 Resource consumption 93 5.4.7 Pollution 94 5.4.8 Solids waste 94 5.4.9 Packaging benefits 95 5.5 Package design and material selection 95 5.5.1 Packaging design 95 5.5.2 Reclamation and recycling 96 5.5.3 Packaging material selection 99 5.5.4 Selection constraints 99 5.5.5 Material comparisons 99 5.5.6 Comparative energy consumption IO() 5.5.7 Oualitative material environmental characteristics 101 5.6 Review of manufacturing operations 103 5.6.1 Scope of manufacturing operations 103 5.6.2 SteeJitinplate 104 5.6.3 Aluminium 105 5.6.4 Glass 105 5.6.5 Paper and board 106 5.6.6 Plastics 107 5.6.7 Flexible packaging 108 5.6.8 Packaging machinery 108 5.7 Identification and control of manufacturing impacts 109 5.7.1 Environmental audits 109 5.7.2 Definition of environmental audit 109 5.7.3 Objective of environmental audit 110 5.7.4 Basic aspects of auditing 110 5.7.5 Environmental audit procedures 110 5.7.6 Audit report and follow-up 111 5.7.7 Compliance with regulations 113 5.7.8 Environmental risk assessment 113 5.8 Communication 113 5.8.1 In-house 114 5.8.2 External communities 114 X CONTENTS 5.9 Summary of conclusions 115 References 116 6 Lifecycle assessment of packaging 118 PETER WHITE, PETER HINDLE and KLAUS DRAGER 6.1 Introduction 118 6.1.1 What is lifecycle assessment? 118 6.1.2 Current usage of lifecycle assessment 120 6.1.3 Benefits of the lifecycle approach 121 6.2 Lifecycle assessment in context - value: impact assessment 122 6.2.1 Measuring 'value' 123 6.2.2 Measuring impact 124 6.3 Lifecycle analysis - the inventory stage 125 6.3.1 Defining the system 125 6.3.2 Constructing the model 126 6.3.3 Data collection 128 6.4 Evaluating lifecycle analysis results 129 6.4.1 Separating analysis from interpretation 129 6.4.2 Issues in evaluation 130 6.4.3 Aggregation categories 131 6.4.4 Aggregation across categories 132 6.4.5 Environmental burden versus environmental impact 134 6.5 Packaging lifecycle assessment in practice - a worked example 136 6.5.1 The systems studied 136 6.5.2 Comparing equal value 136 6.5.3 The model used 137 6.5.4 Inputs of data 138 6.5.5 Results 139 6.5.6 Limitations of the model 141 6.6 Using lifecycle assessment in reverse 142 6.6.1 Modifying the package's environment rather than the package 142 6.7 Future developments in lifecycle assessment 143 6.7.1 Future uses 143 6.7.2 Standardization of models and databases 144 6.7.3 Agreed methods for converting lifecycle analysis inventories into 144 environmental burdens 6.7.4 Presentation and validity of results 145 Acknowledgements 145 References 145 7 The challenge of domestic waste disposal 147 ALBERT MARSDEN 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Totality of waste management 147 7.2.1 Dust and cinders 148 7.2.2 Plastics, metals and glass 148 7.2.3 Paper and cardboard 149 7.2.4 Vegetable material 149 7.3 Quantities of household waste 150 7.4 Resource recovery 150 7.4.1 Paper 151 7.4.2 Glass 151 7.4.3 Plastics 151 7.4.4 Metals 152 7.4.5 Commentary 152 CONTENTS xi 7.5 Waste minimisation 152 7.6 Disposal of municipal solid waste - European practice 154 7.7 Waste disposal techniques 156 7.7.1 Recycling 156 7.7.2 Composting 157 7.7.3 Incineration 157 7.7.4 Landfill 157 7.8 Integrated waste management 158 7.8.1 The composting/recycling option 158 7.8.2 The incineration option 160 7.9 Conclusions for the packaging industry 161 8 Packaging materials recovery and recycling 162 JACQUES FONTEYNE 8.1 Introduction 162 8.2 Techniques of material recovery from household solid waste 163 8.2.1 Mono-material systems 164 8.2.2 Multi-material systems 165 8.3 Role of the European Recovery and Recycling Association (ERRA) 168 8.3.1 Housing type versus project location 172 8.3.2 Technology level versus partner type 173 8.3.3 Technology level versus range of materials collected 174 8.4 Description of the European Recovery and Recycling Association projects 174 8.4.1 Operational projects 175 8.4.2 Projects in the planning phase 178 8.5 European Recovery and Recycling Association monitoring database 179 8.5.1 Components of the database 179 8.5.2 Data analysis 180 8.5.3 Additional information required in the database 182 8.5.4 Results of data analysis to date 183 8.6 Conclusion 185 9 Worldwide environmental contrasts - Europe 187 ERIC JOHNSON 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Key issues 191 9.2.1 Reduction of packaging waste going to landfill 191 9.2.2 Balance between techniques for managing packaging waste 193 9.2.3 Financing mechanisms 194 9.2.4 Lifecycle analysis 194 9.2.5 Qualitative controls 195 9.2.6 Standardisation 196 9.2.7 Solvent emissions 196 9.3 Priorities 197 9.3.1 Recovery and recycling levels 197 9.3.2 Energy recovery 200 9.3.3 Harmonisation 201 9.3.4 Marking 203 9.3.5 Eco-Iabelling 203 9.4 Action and attitudes 204 9.4.1 Consumers 204 9.4.2 Environmental activists 206 9.4.3 Legislators and public authorities 206 9.4.4 Industry and trade 208