OXFORD PAPERBACKREFERENCE ADictionary of Law The mostauthoritativeandup-to-datereference ADictionary of booksfor bothstudentsandthegeneralreader. Oxford ABCofMusic JewishReligion L a w Accounting KingsandQueensofBritain Paperback Allusions LanguageToolkit Reference Archaeology Law Architecture Linguistics ArtandArtists LiteraryQuotations ArtTerms LiteraryTerms Astronomy LocalandFamilyHistory BetterWordpower LondonPlace-Names Bible Mathematics Biology Medical BritishHistory MedicinalDrugs FIFTH EDITION BritishPlace-Names ModernDesign* Buddhism' ModernSlang Reissuedwithnewcovers Business Music CardGames MusicalTerms Catchphrases MusicalWorks CelticMythology Nursing Editedby Chemistry Ologiesand Isms ChristianArt Philosophy ELIZABETH A. MARTIN ChristianChurch Phraseand Fable ChronologyofEnglish Physics Literature' PlantSciences ClassicalLiterature Plays' ClassicalMythand Religion' PocketFowler'sModern Computing EnglishUsage ContemporaryWorldHistory PoliticalQuotations Dance Politics Dates Popes Dynasties oftheWorld Proverbs EarthSciences Psychology Ecology Quotations Economics QuotationsbySubject Encyclopedia ReverseDictionary Engineering' RhymingSlang EnglishEtymology Saints EnglishFolklore Science EnglishGrammar Shakespeare EnglishLanguage Slang EnglishLiterature Sociology Euphemisms Statistics EverydayGrammar Synonyms andAntonyms FinanceandBanking Twentieth-CenturyArt FirstNames Weather Foodand Drink Weights,Measures, and Units Foodand Nutrition WordHistories ForeignWordsandPhrases World History Geography WorldMythology HandbookoftheWorld WorldPlace-Names' HumorousQuotations World Religions Idioms Zoology Internet Islam 'forthcoming Irish Literature OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Preface OXFORD UNIVERSITYPRESS Thisdictionaryhas beenwrittenbyadistinguishedteamofacademic GreatClarendonStreet,Oxfordoxasm- and practising lawyers. It is intended primarilyfor those without a OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. qualificationin law who nevertheless require some legallmowledge ItfurtherstheUniversity'sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch.scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwidein inthecourseoftheirwork:charteredsurveyorsandaccountants,civil Oxford NewYork servantsandlocal-governmentofficers, social workersandprobation Auckland Bangkok BuenosAires CapeTown Chennai officers, as well as businessmen and legal secretaries are typical DaresSaiaam Delhi HongKong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata examples ofthose whose work often calls for a knowledge ofthe KualaLumpur Madrid Melbourne MexicoCity Mumbai Nairobi precisemeaning(and spelling) ofalegal term. SaoPauio Shanghai Taipei TokyoToronto Each article, therefore, begins with a clear definition ofthe entry OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress word (or words) and, in most cases, is followed by a more detailed intheUKandincertainothercountries explanationor descriptionoftheconceptsinvolved. ©MarketHouseBooksLtd 1983,1990,1994,1997,2002,2003 Written in concise English, without the unnecessary use oflegal jargon,thebookwill also be ofconsiderablevalueto membersofthe Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted public who come into contact with the law and lawyers - house DatabaserightOxfordUniversityPress(maker) buyers, motorists, and hire purchasers are amongthosewho cannot Firstpublished1983asAConciseDictionaryoflaw escapethe effects oflegislationor theunique prose style in whichit Secondedition1990 Thirdedition1994 isusuallyexpressed. Reissuedinnewcoverswithcorrections1996 In the five years since the last edition of the dictionary was Fourthedition1997 published there have been radical changes in the English legal Fifthedition2002 Reissuedwithnewcovers2003 system, most notablyin the areas ofcivil procedure (resultingfrom theAccesstoJusticeAct 1999 andthe CivilProcedureRules - theso Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispubiicationmaybereproduced, storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans, called'WoolfReforms') andhumanrights law(broughtaboutbythe withoutthepriorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress, Human Rights Act 1998). The new edition reflects these and many orasexpresslypermittedbylaw,orundertermsagreedwiththeappropriate otherchanges. Ifanyprovisions ofnewlegislationwere notin force reprographicsrightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproduction outsidethescopeoftheaboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment, at the time of publication, the entries to which they apply will OxfordUniversityPress,attheaddressabove indicatethedirectionoftheproposedchanges. Youmustnotcirculatethisbookinanyotherbindingorcover An asterisk (*) placed before a word in a definition indicates that andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer additionalrelevantinformationwillbefoundunderthisarticle.Some BritishLibraryCataioguinginPublicationData entriessimplyreferthereaderto anotherentry,indicatingeitherthat Dataavailable they are synonyms or abbreviations or that they are most conveniently explained, together with related terms, in one ofthe LibraryofCongressCataioginginPublicationData dictionary's longerarticles.The use ofthe pronoun'he' (ratherthan Dataavailable ISBN0-19-860756-3 'heorshe') inentrieshas beenadoptedtosimplifytheconstructionof sentences;itdoes notimplythatthesubjectmatterrelatesexclusively 6 to males. TypesetinSwiftbyMarketHouseBooksLtd, PrintedinGreatBritainby ClaysLtd,StIvespic E.A.M. 2001 Editor Contents ElizabethA.MartinMA(axon) Dictionary 1 UsefulAddresses 545 DirectoratesGeneraloftheEuropeanCommission 551 Contributorsforthe Fifth Edition OwainBlackwellBA,LLM(Nottm) SeniorLecturerinLaw,Buckinghamshire ChilternsUniversityCollege SandraClarkeMA(axon) Barrister;SeniorLecturerinLaw,Universityof Greenwich KimEverettLLB SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich MartinFitzgeraldMSc(SocialResearch), LLB,PGCE Solicitor;PrincipalLecturer inLaw,UniversityofGreenwich M.GaborakLLM SeniorLecturerinlaw, UniversityofGreenwich SarahGreerMA(Cantab],ACA SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich JohnHarderBSc,LLB,DPhil SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich P.D.M.JacksonBSc Barrister;LecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich EdwardPhillipsLLB(Mal),BCL(axon) PrincipalLecturerinLaw,University ofGreenwich GaryShieldsBSc,ACI!,LLM,CertEd PrincipalLecturerinLaw,University ofGreenwich NicholasJ.SimpsonBA(axon) Solicitor E.SusanSingletonLLB Solicitor JohnWadhamBSc(London),MSc(Surrey) Solicitor;DirectorofLiberty MargaretWhybrowLLB Barrister,SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich Contributorsforthe First Edition MartinR.Banham-HallLLB Solicitor BernardBerkovitsLLB LecturerinLaw,UniversityofBuckingham P.J. ClarkeBCL,MA Barrister;FellowandTutorinLaw,JesusCollege,Oxford Letitia Crabb LLB(Wales),LLM(London) Solicitor;LecturerinLaw,University CollegeofWales,Aberystwyth J.W.DaviesLLB,MA,BCL FellowofBrasenoseCollege,Oxford B.Russell DavisMA,LLB Barrister J.D.FelthamBA(Melb.),MA(axon) FellowofMagdalenCollege,Oxford JudithLewisLLB Solicitor KeithUffMA,BCL(axon) LecturerinLaw,UniversityofBirmingham A abandonmentn. 1. Theact of givingup alegal right,particularlyarightof ownershipof property.Propertythathas beenabandonedisresnullius(athing belongingto no one),andapersontakingpossessionof it thereforeacquiresa lawfultitle.Anitemisregardedasabandonedwhenit can be establishedthat the originalownerhas discardedit and isindifferentasto whatbecomesof it:suchan itemcannot bethesubjectof atheftcharge.However,propertyplaced byits owner in adustbinisnotabandoned,havingbeenplacedtherefor thepurposeof being collectedasrefuse.In marineinsurance,abandonmentisthesurrenderof all rights toaship or cargoin acaseof *constructivetotalloss.The insuredpersonmustdo thisbygivingtheinsurerwithinareasonabletimeanoticeofabandonment,by whichhe relinquishesallhis rights to theship or cargoto theinsurerandcan treat thelossasif it werean actualtotalloss. 2. In civillitigation,therelinquishingof thewholeor partof theclaimmade in an actionor of an appeal. Anyclaimisnow consideredto beabandonedonce a *noticeofdiscontinuanceisserved, accordingto rule38(1)of the *CivilProcedureRules. 3. Theoffenceof aparentor guardian leavingachild undertheage of16to its fate. Achildisnot regardedasabandoned if theparentknowsand approvessteps someoneelseistakingto look afterit.The courtmay allow achild to beadoptedwithout theconsentof its parentsif theyare guiltyof abandonment. abatementn. 1. (ofdebts) The proportionatereductionin thepaymentofdebts thattakesplace if aperson'sassets are insufficientto settlewithhis creditorsin full. 2. (oflegacies)The reductionor cancellationof legacies whentheestateis insufficientto cover all thelegacies providedfor in thewill or on intestacyafter paymentof thedeceased'sdebts. TheAdministrationof EstatesAct1925provides thatgenerallegacies,unlessgivento satisfyadebt or for otherconsideration,abate in proportionto theamounts of thoselegacies; specificand demonstrativelegacies thenabateif the estateisstillinsufficientto payall debts,and ademonstrative legacy alsoabatesif thespecifiedfundisinsufficientto cover it. Forexample,A's estatemaycompriseapainting,£300in his savings account,and£700in other money; therearedebts of £100buthiswill leaves thepaintingto B,£500from the savings account to C.£800to D,and £200to E.Bwill receivethepainting,C's demonstrativelegacy abates to £300,andafterthedebtsare paid from the remaining£700,D'sand E'sgenerallegacies abateproportionately,to £480and £120 respectively.Whenannuitiesare givenbythewill, thegeneralruleisthattheyare valuedat thedateof thetestator'sdeath,thenabateproportionatelyin accordance withthatvaluation,and each annuitant receives theabatedsum. Alltheserulesare subjectto any contraryintentionbeingexpressedin thewill. 3. (inland law)Any reductionor cancellationof moneypayable. Forexamplealeasemayprovideforan abatementof rentin certaincircumstances,e.g.if thebuildingisdestroyedbyfire, and apurchaserof landmayclaim an abatementof thepriceif theseller can prove his ownershipof only partof thelandhe contractedto sell. 4. (ofnuisances)The termination,removal,or destructionofa *nuisance.Apersoninjuredbyanuisance has arightto abateit. In doingso,he mustnotdomoredamagethanisnecessary and,if removalof thenuisance requires entryon to thepropertyfromwhichit emanates,he mayhave to give noticeto thewrongdoer.Alocalauthoritycan issue an abatementnoticeto controlstatutorynuisances. 5. (ofproceedings)The abduction 2 3 abstractoftitle terminationof civilproceedings byoperationof law,causedbyachangeof interest accuratenewspaperor broadcastreportof judicialproceedings,or in an official or status(e.g.bankruptcyor death) of one of the partiesafterthestart butbefore communicationbetweencertainofficersofstate.Under theDefamationAct1996, the completionof theproceedings.Anabatementdidnotpreventeitherof the the defenceisalsoavailablefor thosereportingproceedingsof theEuropeanCourt partiesfrombringingfreshproceedingsin respectof thesame cause of action. Pleas ofJustice.Undercertaincircumstancesdefinedby the1996Actthe absol~te inabatementhave been abolished; in modernpracticeany changeof interestor privilegeaccordedto statementsor proceedingsin Parli~mentm~ybewaived . statusof the partiesdoesnot affectthevalidityof theproceedings,providedthat (waiverof privilege)to permitevidence to beadducedIIIan actionfor defamation. the cause ofactionsurvives. CompareQUALIFIED PRNILEGE. abductionn. Theoffenceof takingan unmarriedgirlunder the ageof16from absoluteright Arightset outin theEuropeanConventionon HumanRights that thepossession ofherparentsor guardiansagainsttheirwill.It isno defencethat cannotbe interferedwithlawfully,no matterhowimportantthe publicinterestin the girllooked and acted asifshe wasover 16or thatshewasawillingparty.No doingsomightbe.Absolute rightsinclude *freedomof thought,conscience,and sexualmotivehas to beproved. It isalsoan offenceto abductan unmarriedgirl religionand the prohibitionson *torture, *inhumantreatmentor punishment,and undertheageof18or amentallydefectivewoman(marriedor unmarried)for the *degradingtreatmentor punishment.CompareQUALIFIED RIGHT. purposeof unlawfulsexual intercourse.In this caseadefendantcan plead thathe had reasonablegroundsfor believingthat the girl was over 18,or thathe didnot absolutetitle Ownershipofa *legal estatein registeredland withaguaranteeby knowthewomanwasmentallydefective,respectively.Itisalsoan offenceto abduct the statethatno one has abetterrightto thatestate.An absolute titleto freehold any womanwiththeintentionthatshe shouldmarryor have unlawfulsexual land isequivalenttoan estateinfee simplein possessionin unregisteredland. intercoursewithsomeone, if it isdone byforce or for thesake of herproperty.It is Absoluteleaseholdtitle,unlike *goodleaseholdtitle,guaranteesthat the lessor alsoan offenceforaparentor guardianof achild under16to takeor send himout hastitleto grant the lease.(ComparePOSSESSORYTITLE;QUALIFIEDTITLE.)Thetitlemay of theUKwithoutthe consentof the otherparentor guardians.Beliefthatthe besubjectto (1) *encumbrancesand otherentriesnotedon theregisterbymeansof otherpersonhas or wouldhave consentedisadefence. Itisalsoan offencefor any substantiveregistration(e.g.aregisteredlegal chargeor landcharge);(2)minor otherpersonto removeor keep such achild,withoutlawfulauthorityor reasonable interests,such asthatof abeneficiaryunderatrust,whichmay beprotectedby excuse,from the personwithlawfulcontrolof him. Proofof beliefthat the child means of "entry"on theregisterratherthanbysubstantiveregistration;and (3) was16isadefencehere. See alsoKIDNAPPING. *overridinginterests(which bytheirnaturedonotappearontheregisterand must beascertainedbysearchand enquiry). SeealsoLANDREGISTRATION. abet vb. SeeAIDAND ABET. abstractingelectricity The *arrestableoffence,punishablewithup to five years' abortionn. Theterminationof apregnancy:amiscarriageor thepremature imprisonmentand/orafine, of dishonestlyusing, wasting,or divertingelectricity. expulsionofafoetus from thewombbeforethe normalperiodof gestationis Thisoffencemay becommittedbysomeonewho bypasses his electricitymeteror complete.Itisan offenceto induceor attempt toinducean abortionunless the reconnectsadisconnectedmeteror who unlawfullyobtainsafree telephonecall terms of theAbortionAct1967and the AbortionRegulations1991are compliedwith. (thoughthereisamorespecificand potentiallylessseriousoffencetodealwith The pregnancycanonly beterminatedbyaregisteredmedicalpractitioner,and two this).Bypassingagasor watermetercould constitute *theftof the gasor water. registeredmedical practitionersmustagree thatit isnecessary, for examplebecause Joyridinginalift(orsome similarabuse)mightalsoconstitutewastingelectricity. (1)continuationof thepregnancywouldinvolve arisk to thelife or physical or Computerhackerswereformerlychargedwithoffencesof abstractingelectricity mentalhealthof thepregnantwoman(orof otherchildrenof hers) thatisgreater untilthe ComputerMisuseAct1990made *hackingaspecificcriminaloffence. thantherisk of terminatingthe pregnancy,or (2)that thereisasubstantialrisk thatthechild will bebornwithaseriousphysical or mentalhandicap. However, abstractionofwater The takingofwaterfromariveror othersource of doctorsare notobligedto performabortionsif theycan provethattheyhave a supply. Itnormallyrequiresawaterauthoritylicence butthereare exceptions;for conscientiousobjectionto sodoing. Ahusbandcannotpreventhis wifehavinga examplewhenlessthan1000gallons are taken,whenthewaterisfor domesticor legal abortionif she sowishes.CompareCHILD DESTRUCTION. agriculturaluse (excludingsprayirrigation),or whenit isremovedin the courseof fire-fightingor landdrainage.Ithas beenheld not to includegravitationallossfrom abscondingn. Thefailure of apersonto surrenderto thecustodyof acourtin acanal replacingwaterdrawnfromaconnectingoutfallchannel. order toavoid legal proceedings.SeealsoSURRENDER TO CUSTODY. abstractoftitle Writtendetailsof the *titledeeds anddocumentsthatprovean absencen. (incourtprocedure)Thenonappearanceof apartyto litigationor a owner's rightto dispose of his land or an interestin this.Anabstractgenerallydeals personsummonedto attendasawitness. onlywiththe *legal estateand any equitableinterests thatare not *overreached.An absent-mindednessn. SeeAUTOMATISM. ownerusuallysuppliesan abstractof titlebefore *completiontoan intending purchaseror mortgagee,who comparesit withtheoriginaltitledeedswhenthese absent parent SeeNONRESIDENTPARENT;CHILD SUPPORT MAINTENANCE. are producedor handedover on completionof the transaction.Anabstractof title absoluteassignment SeeASSIGNMENT. to registeredland consistsof *officecopiesof theentriesin the register(together absolutedischarge SeeDISCHARGE. withan *authoritytoinspectthe register)and detailsof any otherdocuments necessaryto prove the owner'stitle,suchasamarriagecertificateprovinga absolute privilege Thedefencethatastatementcannotbemade the subjectof woman's changeofsurname.Forunregisteredland, theabstractof titlemust an actionfor *defamationbecause it was made in Parliament,in papersorderedto usuallytracethehistoryof the land's ownershipfromadocumentat least 15years be publishedbyeitherHouse of Parliament,in judicialproceedingsor afairand old(the *rootof title)and givedetailsof anydocumentcreatingencumbrancesto abuseofa dominantposition 4 5 access which the land issubject.Anabstractof titleformerlycomprisedextracts,oftenin canchargefor its services whenit considersthatthis isappropriate.Thelawon abbreviatednoteform, butnow generallycomprisesduplicatecopiesof therelevant conciliationgenerallyiscontainedin the EmploymentTribunalsAct1996. documents(anepitome oftitle).Anabstractor epitome,witheach copydocument accelerationn. The comingintopossession of a *futureinterestinany property markedasexaminedagainst the original,may besufficientin itselfto deducetitle; at an earlierstagethanthatdirectedbythe transactionor settlementthatcreated for instance,whenatitleissplitintolots,thepurchaserof each lot may be required the interest.Forexample,alandlord'sinterestin *reversionisacceleratedif the toacceptan examinedabstractor epitomeinlieu of theoriginaltitledeeds, tenantsurrendersthe lease beforeit has expired.Whenawill bequeathsan interest accompaniedbyan *acknowledgmentand undertaking. for life thatlapses (e.g.becausethe legateediesbeforethetestator),the interestof abuseofadominantposition Unlawfulactivitiesbylargebusinesses,i.e. thepersonentitledin *remainderisacceleratedand takes effectimmediatelythe usuallythosehavingamarketshareof at least40%inat leastone EUstate. testatordies. Examplesof such activities,whichare contraryto *Article82of the TreatyofRome acceptancen. Agreement to thetermsof an *offerthat,providedcertainother and theUKCompetitionAct1998,include refusingto supplyan existingcustomer requirementsare fulfilled. convertstheofferintoalegally bindingcontract.If the and engagingin *predatorypricing.The EuropeanCommissionand theOffice of methodbywhichacceptanceisto besignifiedisindicatedbythe offeror,that FairTradingcanfine businessesup to10%of annualworldwide turnoverfor breach methodalone will beeffective.Ifit isnot, acceptancemay beeitherexpress(by ofArticle82.The recordindividualfine, of102MECUs(now euros),wasagainst wordof mouthor in writing)or inferredfrom theofferee'sconduct;for example,if Volkswagenin1998;it was upheldonappealinJuly 2000.UndertheUKCompetition he receives goodsonapprovaland startstomakeuse of them.Theacceptancemust Act1998a£3.21Mpenaltywasimposedon NappPharmaceuticals.SeeANTICOMPETITIVE always,however,involve some actionon thepartof thepersontowhomtheoffer PRACTICE. was made: theofferorcannotassert thathis offerwill betreatedasacceptedunless the offereerejectsit.Thevalidityof an acceptanceisgoverned byfourprincipal abuseofprocess Atortwheredamageiscaused byusingalegal process for an rules. (1)Itmusttakeplacewhilethe offerisstillin force, i.e.beforeit has lapsed ulteriorcollateralpurpose.(See alsoMALICIOUS PROSECUTION.)Actions thatare obviouslyfrivolous,vexatious,or in badfaithcan bestayed or dismissedbythe (see LAPSEOFOFFER)or been revoked(see REVOCATION OFOFFER).(2)Itmustbe onthe same termsasthe offer.Anacceptancemade subjectto any variationistreatedasa courtasan abuseof process. counteroffer.(3) It mustbeunconditional,thusan acceptancesubjecttocontractis abusivebehaviour SeeTHREATENING BEHAVIOUR. notavalidacceptance.(4)Itmustbecommunicatedto theofferor.Acceptanceby letteristreatedascommunicatedwhenthe letterisposted, but telexisequated ABWOR Advicebywayof representation:assistanceformerlygivento apersonby withthetelephone,sothatcommunicationtakesplace only on receipt. However, takingon his behalfany step in the institutionor conductofany proceedings whenthe offerconsistsof apromiseto conferabenefiton whoevermay performa beforeacourtor tribunalundertheprovisionsof the legal adviceand assistance specifiedact, the offerorwaives the requirementof communicationasaseparate scheme. The legal aidschemeunderwhichABWORwas createdwas replacedbythe act. If,for example.he offersarewardfor information,apersonable to supplythe "CommunityLegalServicefrom1April 2000.Underthenewscheme, the informationisnotexpectedto accepttheofferformally. Theact of givingthe authorizationof legal representationfor thepurposesof aparticularhearingisnow informationitselfconstitutestheacceptance.the communicationof the acceptance, inaformcalled helpatcourt. and the performanceof thecontract. ACAS AdvisoryConciliationand ArbitrationService:astatutorybody thatwas acceptanceofabill Thewrittenagreementbythepersononwhoma *bill of establishedundertheEmploymentProtectionAct1975;the compositionand exchangeisdrawn(the drawee) thathewill accept the orderof the personwho functions ofACASare now governedbyParts IVand VIof theTrade Union and draws it uponhim(the drawer).Theacceptancemustbewrittenon the bill and Labour Relations (Consolidation)Act1992.ACASwasset up to promotethe signed. Thesignatureof thedraweewithoutadditionalwordsissufficient,although improvementof industrialrelationsand the developmentof *collectivebargaining. generallytheword"accepted"isused aswell.Upon acceptancethe draweebecomes Inits conciliationfunction it mayintervene,withorwithoutthe parties'consent.in the acceptorand thepartyprimarilyliable uponthebill.SeealsoQUALIFIED a *tradedisputeto offerfacilitiesand assistancein negotiatingasettlement.It ACCEPTANCE. employsconciliationofficerswho may assist partiesto an applicationtoan employmenttribunalto reachasettlement.Earlier legislationremovedthenecessity acceptancesupraprotest(acceptancefor honour) Aformof *acceptanceofa for bindingsettlementsof employmentdisputes to involve an ACASconciliation bill of exchangeto savethegoodnameof thedraweror an endorser.Ifabill of officer:settlementscan now be made whentheinvididualhas had independentlegal exchangehas beeneitherthesubjectof a*protestfor dishonourbynonacceptance advicefromaqualifiedlawyer. or protestedfor bettersecurity,and it isnot overdue,any personwho isnotalready liable onthebill may.withtheconsentof the holder.acceptthebillsupraprotest. ACASdoesnot itselfarbitratein tradedisputes,butwiththeconsentof both Suchan acceptancemust bewrittenon the bill.indicatethatit isan acceptancefor partiesit may referadispute to the *CentralArbitrationCommitteeor to an honour,and besigned. Theacceptorfor honour engages thathewill paythebill on independentarbitrator.ACAS may givefree adviceto employers,employees, and due presentmentifit isnot paid bythe drawee, providedthatit has beenduly their respectiverepresentativesonmattersof employmentor industrialrelations.It presentedfor paymentand protestedfor nonpaymentand thathe receives noticeof issues *codesof practicegivingguidanceon such mattersasdisciplinaryprocedures these facts. Heisliable to the holderand toallpartiesto thebill subsequentto the and *disclosureof informationto tradeunions. It may alsoconductinquiriesinto partyfor whose honourhe accepted. industrialrelationsproblems,eithergenerallyor in relationto particularbusinesses, and publishtheresultsafterconsideringtheviewsof partiesdirectlyaffected.ACAS accessn. Formerly.the opportunitytovisit achild thatwas granted(atthe accession 6 7 acknowledgment discretionof thecourt)to its parentwhenthe otherparenthad thecare and control requiringone partytoarelationship(e.g.apartnership)toaccount to the otheror of thechild afterdivorce or whenacustodianshiporderwas inforce. Sincethe othersformoneys receivedor due.Anaccountmay be:(1)openorcurrent,wherea ChildrenAct1989came intoforce the conceptof accesshas been replacedbythatof balance hasnotbeenagreedor acceptedbyallparties;(2)stated,whereabalance *contact.SeealsoSECTION 8ORDERS. hasbeenacceptedascorrectbyallparties;or (3) settled,whereabalance has been acceptedand discharged. accession n. 1.Theformal agreementofacountryto an international *treaty. The termisappliedto theagreementof acountryto become amemberstateof the accountingrecords SeeBOOKSOFACCOUNT. EuropeanUnion.Memberstatesaccede to the TreatyofRomeor any otherEU accountofprofits Aremedythataclaimantcan claimasan alternativeto treatybysigningaccessionagreements. 2.Theprocess of amemberof the royal damagesin certaincircumstances,e.g.inan actionforbreachof *copyright.A familysucceedingto the throne,whichoccurs immediatelyon thedeathor successfulclaimantisentitledtoasum equal to themonetarygain the defendant abdicationof theprevioussovereign. has made throughwrongingtheclaimant. accessland Landtowhichthepublicwill have accessfor thepurposesof open-air accountspl.n. Astatementof acompany'sfinancial position.Allregistered recreationunder the Countrysideand RightsofWayAct2000.Itincludesland companiesmustpresentaccounts(inthe form prescribedbytheCompanies Act shownasopen country(mountain,moor, heath,or down) onamapin conclusive 1985)annuallyat a *generalmeeting.Theseconsistof a *balancesheetand a *profit formissued byan appropriatecountrysidebody(the CountrysideAgency or the and-lossaccountwith*groupaccounts(ifappropriate)attached.Theyare CountrysideCouncil for Wales)or ascommonland,or land situatedmorethan600 accompaniedbyadirectors' reportand an auditor'sreport.Alllimitedcompanies metresabove sealevel,or land thathas beendedicatedasaccessland. mustdelivercopies of theiraccountsto the *CompaniesRegistry(where theyare accessoryn. Onewho isapartyto acrimethatisactuallycommittedbysomeone open to publicinspection)butcompaniesthatare classified(onthe basisof else.Anaccessory isonewho eithersuccessfullyincitessomeoneto commitacrime turnover,balancesheettotal,and numberof members)as"small"or "medium-sized" (counselsorprocures)or helps himto doso(*aidsand abets).Theaccessory is enjoycertainexemptions.Membersare entitledto besentcopies of the accounts.See subjectto the same punishmentsand ordersasthe principal(seealsoCOMMON alsoELECTIVERESOLUTION; SUMMARYFINANCIAL STATEMENT. DESIGN). Itisan offencetoassist apersonwhomone knows has committedan accretionn. Theprocess bywhichnew land formations are legally assimilatedto arrestableoffencewiththeintentionofimpedinghis apprehensionor prosecution. old byachangein the flow ofawaterchannel.Incontrastto *avulsion, this process SeealsoIMPEDINGAPPREHENSION ORPROSECUTION. involves averyslow,nearimperceptible,naturalactionof waterand otherelements. accessoryliability Ifastrangerknowinglyand dishonestlyassists atrusteeina Itwouldinclude,for example,thenaturaldiversionof aboundaryriverleavingan breachof trusthewill beliable asan accessory.Hewill notusuallyhave received island, sandbank,or dryland whereit previouslyflowed, the formationof islands at any trustassets;however,in assistingin the breachhe will be personallyliable to arivermouth,and additionsto adeltabythe depositof sand and soiluponthe account to thetrustforany lossesarisingfromhisactions. shoreline.Accretionwill allowthe beneficiarystateto legitimatelyclaim title to the accidentn. SeeFATALACCIDENTS; MISTAKE;ROADTRAFFICACCIDENTS. new land socreated.SeealsoTHALWEG, RULEOFTHE. accidentrecordbook Arecordkeptbythe policeof detailsof the accidents they accumulationn. The continualadditionof theincomeof afund to thecapital, so have investigated.Accessto thisisusuallyrequestedbysolicitorsactingin that the fundgrowsindefinitely.Before the AccumulationAct1800accumulation subsequentlitigationrelatingto *roadtrafficaccidents.TheAssociationof Chief was permittedfor thelengthof theperpetuityperiod(i.e.livesin beingplus 21 PoliceOfficersTrafficCommitteehas issued guidelinesonchargesfor such reports. years: seeRULEAGAINST PERPETUITIES).Theperiodsfor whichaccumulationisnow permittedare shorter;theyare listedin the Lawof PropertyAct1925and the accommodationbill Abill of exchangeacceptedbyan accommodationparty, Perpetuitiesand AccumulationsAct1964and includeaperiodof 21years from the i.e.apersonwho signs withoutreceivingvalue and for thepurposeof lendinghis dateof thedisposition, theperiodof thelife of thesettlor,and the durationof the name(i.e.his credit) to someoneelse.Anaccommodationpartyisliable on the bill to minorityof any personmentionedin thedisposition.Incomeisoftendirectedto be a *holderfor value. accumulatedif (for example)thebeneficiaryisaminor,or theinterestin his favour accomplicen. Onewho isapartyto acrime, eitherasa *principalor asan isprotectedor contingent,or if thetermsof atrustarediscretionary. *accessory.SeealsoCORROBORATION. accusatorial procedure (adversaryprocedure) Asystemof criminaljusticein accordand satisfaction The purchasebyone partyto acontractof arelease whichconclusionsasto liabilityare reachedbytheprocess of prosecutionand fromhisobligationsunderit whenthe otherpartyhasalreadyperformedhis side defence. It istheprimarydutyof theprosecutorand defenceto press their of the bargain.Arelease of thisone-sided natureconstitutesaunilateraldischarge respectiveviewpointswithinthe constraintsof therulesof evidencewhile the of the contract;unless grantedbydeed,it canat commonlaw be effectedonly by judgeacts asan impartialumpire,who allows thefacts to emergefrom this purchase,i.e.byafreshagreement(accord)for whichnewconsideration procedure.Common-lawsystemsusuallyadoptan accusatorialprocedure.Seealso (satisfaction)isgiven. If,forexample,Aisdue to pay£1000on aparticulardate to B BURDEN OFPROOF.CompareINQUISITORIALPROCEDURE. for contractualservices rendered,Bmightagreeto accept£900paid onan earlier acknowledgmentn. 1.The admissionthatadebtisdue or aclaim exists. Under date, theearlierpaymentconstitutingsatisfaction.CompareBILATERALDISCHARGE. See theLimitationAct1980,awrittenacknowledgmentbyadebtoror hisagentcauses also (PROMISSORY) ESTOPPEL. thedebtto betreatedasif it had accruedon thedateof theacknowledgment, accountn. Arightat commonlawand later(more importantly)in equity, providedthatthelimitationperiodisstill currentat thatdate. The resultisthat the acknowledgmentand undertaking 8 9 actofstate limitationperiodofsixyears for bringingan actionto recover the debtrunsfrom actionn. Aproceedingin whichapartypursuesalegal rightinacivilcourt.See thedateof acknowledgment,rather thanthe dateonwhichthedebtinfactarose. alsoIN PERSONAM;IN REM. SeealsoLIMITATION OFACTIONS. 2. Confirmationbythe signatorytoadocumentthat activetrust(specialtrust) Atrustthatimposesdutieson thetrusteeotherthan the signatureonthedocumentishis own.Forexample,theWillsAct1837requires thatof merelyhandingover the trustpropertyto thepersonentitledto it (compare that the testator'ssignatureon thewill bemade or acknowledgedin thepresenceof at least two witnessespresentat the same time. SinceJanuary1983it has alsobeen BARETRUST).Thesedutiesmay imposeaspecific obligationon thetrusteeor confera discretiononhim. possible for awitnessto acknowledgehis signaturein the presenceof thetestator. act ofGod Aneventdue to naturalcauses (storms, earthquakes,floods,etc.)so acknowledgmentand undertaking Confirmationin a *titledeed thata exceptionallysevere thatno-one could reasonablybe expectedtoanticipateor guard personmayseeand have copies of relevantdeedsnotin his possession (acknowledgment),withapromisefrom the holderof themto keep themsafely againstit.SeeFORCE MAJEURE. (undertaking).Thus whenpartof an owner'slandissold,he keeps his deeds to the Act ofParliament(statute) Adocument thatsets outlegal rulesand has whole butin the conveyancegives this acknowledgmentand undertakingto the (normally) been passed bybothHouses of *Parliamentin theformof a *Billand purchaser,who can thenprovehis titleto thepartfrom copies of theearlierdeeds agreedto bytheCrown(seeROYALASSENT). Under theParliamentActs1911and 1949, and bycallingfor productionof theoriginals.In the majorityof casesthe vendor however,passingof publicBillsbythe House of Lordscan bedispensedwith,except gives thepurchaseralltitledocuments relatingsolelyto theland conveyed, and an in the caseof Billsto extendthedurationof Parliamentor to confirmprovisional acknowledgmentand undertakingisonly necessarywhenthisdoesnothappen.Note orders.Subjectto theseexceptions,theLordscan delay Billspassed bythe House of thatpersonalrepresentativesand fiduciaryownerswill normallygiveonlyan Commons; it cannotblock themcompletely.IftheCommonspassamoneyBill(for acknowledgment,noundertaking.Breach of an undertakinggives rise to anaction example,one givingeffectto the Budget)and the Lordsdonotpassit unaltered in damages. withinone month,it may besubmitteddirectfor the royal assent. AnyotherBill may receive theroyal assentwithoutbeingpassed bytheLordsif theCommonspass acknowledgmentofservice Aresponsebyadefendantto aclaim.Adefendant it in two consecutivesessions and at leastoneyear elapses betweenits second who intends tocontestproceedingsbroughtagainsthimbyaclaimantmust readingin thefirstsession and its thirdreadingin thesecond. respondto the claim byfilingan acknowledgmentofservice and/orbyfilinga EverymodernActof Parliamentbegins witha longtitle, whichsummarizesits *defence. Acknowledgmentsof service are used if the defendantisunabletofile a aims,and ends withashorttitle,bywhichit may becitedinany otherdocument. defencewithintherequiredtimeor if thedefendantintends to dispute the Theshorttitleincludes thecalendaryear in whichtheActreceives the royal assent jurisdictionof the court,Byacknowledgingservice adefendantisgivenan extra14 (e.g.TheCompetitionAct1998).Analternativemethodof citationisbythe calendar daysfor filing the defence. Ineffectthis meansthat the defendanthasa 28-day year togetherwiththeChapternumberallottedto theActon receivingtheassent periodafterservice of the claim beforethedefencemustbeserved. Oncethe or,in the caseof an Actearlierthan1963,byits regnalyear or years and Chapter defendanthas returnedtherelevantsectionof the acknowledgmentof service form, number.Regnal years arenumberedfrom the dateof asovereign'saccession to the thecourtmustnotifythe claimantinwriting. throne,and anActisattributedto the year or years coveringthesessionin whichit ACPstates TheAfrican, Caribbean,and Pacificstatesthatareassociatedwiththe receives the royal assent. (See alsoENACTING WORDS.)AnActcomes intoforce on the EuropeanUnion throughthe LomeConvention.Thisconvention,whichwassigned dateof royal assentunlessit specifies adifferentdateor providesfor the dateto be at Lome(Togo)in 1975,providesfor cooperationin mattersof commercebetween fixedbyministerialorder. ACPstatesand EUstates,includingaccessto the EUmarketfor productsfrom the Actsof Parliamentareclassifiedbythe Queen'sPrinteraspublicgeneralActs, ACPcountries.TheConventionalsoprovidesfor cooperationinindustrialand localActs,and personalActs.PublicgeneralActsincludeallActs(except those financial matters. confirmingprovisionalorders)introducedintoParliamentaspublicBills.LocalActs acquiescencen. Express or implied *consent.In law,care mustbe takento compriseallActsintroducedasprivateBillsand confinedin operationtoa distinguishbetweenmereknowledgeof asituationand positiveconsentto it.For particulararea, togetherwithActsconfirmingprovisionalorders.PersonalActsare example,in the defenceof *volentinonfit injuriaan injuredpartywill not be ActsintroducedasprivateBillsand applyingto privateindividualsor estates. Acts regardedashavingconsentedto arisk simplybecause he knewthattherisk existed. are alternativelyclassifiedaspublicActsorprivateActsaccordingto theirstatus incourtsof law.ApublicAct isjudiciallynoticed(i.e.acceptedbythe courtsasa acquiredrights SeeRELEVANTTRANSFER. matterofgeneralknowledge). AprivateActisnot, and mustbe expresslypleaded acquiscommunautaire [French]The bodyof *Communitylegislationbywhich bythepersonrelyingonit.AllActssince1850arepublicunlesstheyspecifically all EUmemberstatesare bound. provideotherwise.The printedversionof an Act,rather thanthe versionset outon the HMSOwebsite,istheauthentic text,althoughtherearecurrentproposals(2001) acquittaln. Adecision byacourt thatadefendantaccused of acrimeisinnocent. toalterthis ruleundertheElectronicCommunicationsAct2000. Acourtmustacquitadefendantfollowingaverdictof *notguiltyor asuccessful plea of *autrefoisacquitor *autrefoisconvict.Onceacquitted,adefendantcannot be actofstate Anact,ofteninvolvingforce, of theexecutiveof astate,or retriedfor thesame crimeonfresh evidence, butan acquittalinacriminalcourt committedbyan agent of asovereignpowerwithits priorapprovalorsubsequent doesnot bindcivilcourts(for example, in relation toalibelchargeagainstsomeone ratification, thataffectsadverselyapersonwho doesnot oweallegiance to that allegingthedefendant'sguilt). power. Thecourtshave powertodecidewhetheror notparticularconduct