Optimisation of aerobic fitness development in young athletes A thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2013 Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) School of Sport and Recreation Faculty of Health and Environmental Science Auckland University of Technology By Craig Bruce Harrison (MPhEd.) Primary supervisor: Associate Professor Andrew Kilding Secondary supervisor: Dr. Taisuke Kinugasa Tertiary supervisor: Dr. Nicholas Gill 2 Table of Contents Attestation of authorship .................................................................................................... 7 Thesis publications .............................................................................................................. 8 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................10 List of tables .......................................................................................................................11 List of Figures ....................................................................................................................13 Abstract ..............................................................................................................................14 Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................16 1.1 Background ................................................................................................................17 1.2 Rationale of the Study and Thesis Aims ......................................................................20 1.3 Thesis Organisation ....................................................................................................23 1.4 Overview of Studies ...................................................................................................26 1.5 Significance of Study ..................................................................................................27 Chapter 2: Development of aerobic fitness in young team sport athletes ........................28 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................29 2.2 Determining maturity status of young athletes ............................................................31 2.3 Natural development of aerobic fitness in youth .........................................................33 2.4 Development of aerobic fitness with training ..............................................................34 2.5 Systematic analysis of methods to increase aerobic fitness in young team sport athletes .............................................................................................................................35 2.5.1 Search strategies and inclusion criteria .................................................................36 2.5.2 Data analysis ........................................................................................................36 2.5.3 Athlete characteristics ..........................................................................................37 2.5.4 Training mode ......................................................................................................42 2.5.5 Effects of generic training on aerobic fitness and performance .............................43 2.5.6 Effects of sport-specific training on aerobic fitness and performance ....................45 2.6 An evidence-based model of aerobic fitness development in young team sport players ..............................................................................................................................47 2.6.1 The sampling stage (ages 9-12 years) ...................................................................49 2.6.2 The specialisation stage (ages 13-15 years) ..........................................................50 2.6.3 The investment stage (ages 16+ years) .................................................................52 2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................53 Chapter 3: Quantification of physiological, movement and technical outputs during a novel small-sided game in young team sport athletes ........................................55 3 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................56 3.2 Methods .....................................................................................................................58 3.2.1 Experimental approach to the problem .................................................................58 3.2.2 Subjects ...............................................................................................................59 3.2.3 Procedures ...........................................................................................................59 3.2.3.1 Incremental treadmill running test ..................................................................59 3.2.3.2 Small-sided games – Bucketball ....................................................................60 3.2.4 Heart rate monitoring ...........................................................................................62 3.2.5 Time-motion characteristics .................................................................................62 3.2.6 Psychophysical variables ......................................................................................63 3.2.7 Technical skill executions ....................................................................................63 3.3 Statistical Analyses .....................................................................................................64 3.4 Results ........................................................................................................................64 3.4.1 Physical and perceptual characteristics .................................................................64 3.4.2 Time-motion characteristics .................................................................................64 3.4.3 Technical Outputs ................................................................................................65 3.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................68 3.5.1 Physiological and Perceptual Responses ...............................................................69 3.5.2 Time-motion characteristics .................................................................................70 3.5.3 Technical Outputs ................................................................................................71 3.6 Practical applications ..................................................................................................72 Chapter 4: Small-sided games for young athletes: Is game specificity influential? ........72 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................75 4.2 Methods .....................................................................................................................77 4.2.1 Experimental approach .........................................................................................77 4.2.2 Participants ..........................................................................................................77 4.2.3 Procedures ...........................................................................................................78 4.3 Statistical analysis ......................................................................................................82 4.4 Results ........................................................................................................................82 4.4.1 Physical demands .................................................................................................82 4.4.2 Technical demands ...............................................................................................83 4.4.3 Physiological demands .........................................................................................83 4.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................86 4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................90 4 Chapter 5: Small-sided games for young team sport players: Influence of team selection strategy and playing regime ...............................................................................91 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................92 5.2 Methods .....................................................................................................................94 5.2.1 Experimental approach to the problem .................................................................94 5.2.2 Subjects ...............................................................................................................94 5.2.3 Procedures ...........................................................................................................96 5.2.3.1 Incremental treadmill running test ..................................................................96 5.2.3.2 Small-sided games – Bucketball ....................................................................96 5.2.3.3 Team player allocation ...................................................................................97 5.2.4 Physical demands .................................................................................................98 5.2.5 Perceived exertion ................................................................................................98 5.2.6 Technical skill executions ....................................................................................99 5.3 Statistical Analyses .....................................................................................................99 5.4 Results ...................................................................................................................... 104 5.4.1 Team allocation method ..................................................................................... 104 5.4.2 Game duration.................................................................................................... 104 5.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 105 5.6 Practical applications ................................................................................................ 110 Chapter 6: Effect of rule changes and inter-game conditioning exercise on small- sided game demands in young team sport athletes ......................................................... 111 6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 112 6.2 Methods ................................................................................................................... 114 6.2.1 Experimental approach ....................................................................................... 114 6.2.2 Participants ........................................................................................................ 114 6.2.3 Procedures ......................................................................................................... 116 6.2.3.1 Incremental treadmill running test ................................................................ 116 6.2.3.2 30-15 intermittent fitness test ....................................................................... 116 6.2.3.3 Small-sided games ....................................................................................... 117 6.2.4 Physiological responses ...................................................................................... 117 6.2.5 Time-motion characteristics ............................................................................... 118 6.2.6 Physical and perceptual responses ...................................................................... 118 6.2.7 Technical skill executions .................................................................................. 119 6.3 Statistical analyses .................................................................................................... 119 6.4 Results ...................................................................................................................... 120 5 6.4.1 Physiological responses ...................................................................................... 120 6.4.2 Time-motion characteristics ............................................................................... 120 6.4.3 Physical and perceptual responses ...................................................................... 121 6.4.4 Technical skill executions .................................................................................. 123 6.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 126 6.5.1 Physiological responses ...................................................................................... 126 6.5.2 Time-motion characteristics ............................................................................... 127 6.5.3 Physical and perceptual responses ...................................................................... 128 6.5.4 Technical skill executions .................................................................................. 129 6.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 130 Chapter 7: Aerobic fitness for young athletes: Small-sided games or high-intensity interval training? ............................................................................................................. 131 7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 132 7.2 Methods ................................................................................................................... 134 7.2.1 Experimental approach ....................................................................................... 134 7.2.2 Participants ........................................................................................................ 135 7.2.3 Procedures ......................................................................................................... 135 7.2.3.1 Incremental treadmill running test ................................................................ 135 7.2.3.2 Intermittent Performance Test ...................................................................... 136 7.2.3.3 Lower limb explosive power ........................................................................ 136 7.2.3.4 Speed ........................................................................................................... 137 7.2.4 Training intervention .......................................................................................... 137 7.2.5 Training variables .............................................................................................. 139 7.3 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................... 140 7.4 Results ...................................................................................................................... 141 7.4.1 Physical load and perceptual responses to training .............................................. 141 7.4.2 Changes in performance after training ................................................................ 142 7.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 144 7.5.1 Physical load and perceptual responses during training....................................... 144 7.5.2 Effects on maximal aerobic power and intermittent performance ........................ 145 7.5.3 Effects on speed and explosive power ................................................................ 147 7.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 147 Chapter 8: Overall Discussion and Conclusions ............................................................. 149 8.1 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 150 8.1.1 Non sport-specific SSGs – optimisation of aerobic fitness development ............. 150 6 8.1.1.1 Playing number and field size ...................................................................... 150 8.1.1.2 Non sport-specific versus sport-specific SSGs ............................................. 152 8.1.1.3 Team selection strategy and playing regime ................................................. 153 8.1.1.4 Rule modification and inter-game conditioning exercise .............................. 155 8.1.2 Training for Aerobic Fitness - SSGs versus high-intensity interval training ........ 156 8.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 157 8.3 Practical applications ................................................................................................ 158 8.4 Future Research ........................................................................................................ 162 8.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 163 References ........................................................................................................................ 165 Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 173 Appendix 1: Ethical approval ......................................................................................... 174 Appendix 2. Participant information sheets ..................................................................... 176 Appendix 4: Parent Consent forms ................................................................................. 207 Appendix 5: Assent forms .............................................................................................. 216 Appendix 6: Abstracts .................................................................................................... 221 Chapter 3: Abstract ..................................................................................................... 222 Chapter 4: Abstract ..................................................................................................... 222 Chapter 5: Abstract ..................................................................................................... 223 Chapter 6: Abstract ..................................................................................................... 224 Chapter 7: Abstract ..................................................................................................... 225 7 Attestation of authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning. .............................................. Craig Harrison October 2013 8 Thesis publications The contribution of co-authors for publications (e.g. Harrison, C., 80% etc) arising from these studies and from whom approval has been granted for inclusion in this doctoral thesis, is as follows: Published in peer-reviewed journals Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Quantification of physiological, movement and technical outputs during a novel small- sided game in young team sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res, 27(10), 2861-2868. Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Small-sided games for young athletes: Is game specificity influential? J Sport Sci, 32(4), 336-344. Under review in peer-reviewed journals Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Development of aerobic fitness in young team sport athletes. Int J Sports Sci Coach. In review (Chapter 2). Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Small-sided games for young team sport players: Influence of team selection strategy and playing regime. J Strength Cond Res. In review (Chapter 5). Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Effect of rule changes and inter-game conditioning exercise on small-sided game demands in young team sport athletes. Int J Sports Sci Coach. In review (Chapter 6). 9 Harrison, C. (80%), Kilding, A. (10%), Kinugasa, T. (5%), Gill, N. (5%), (2013). Aerobic fitness for young athletes: Small-sided games or high-intensity interval training? Int J Sports Med. In review (Chapter 7). 10 Acknowledgements To those who opened the door. Thank you. To those who welcomed me in. Thank you. To those who kept the pathway bright. Thank you. To those who excited the journey. Thank you. To those who encouraged a detour. Thank you. To those who routed my track. Thank you. To those who always believed. Thank you. For the shoulder to lean on. And the patience. Thank you. Now to give back. This thesis is dedicated to my wife Anna, and son Isaac. “If the sun refuses to shine, I will still be loving you” - Led Zeppelin