Optics/Materials science Optics/Materials science T P T P A R A R y A y A l s l s o A o A R n ORpntical Otepcthicnailq tueecshniques k k Optical teOcphtniciaqlu teeschniquesu u m m A A sOliD-state sOliD-state FOR FOR sOliD-state sOliD-state R R FOR FOR MateRials cMhaaRteaRcitaelRsi cZahtaiORancteRiZatiOn MateRials chaMRaatcetReiRailZsa ctihOanRacteRiZatiOn Over the last century, numerous optical tOecvhenr itqhuee sla hsta vcee nbteuerny ,d neuvmeloerpoeuds toop cthicaarla tcetcehrinzieq mueast ehraivaels ,b een developed to characterize materials, giving insight into their optical, electrongiciv, imnga ginnseitgich,t a inndto s ttrhuecitru orpalt ipcraol,p eelretcietrso annicd, emluacgindeattiicn,g a nsudc sht ructural properties and elucidating such diverse phenomena as high-temperature sduipveerrcsoe npdhuecntoivmiteyn aan ads phriogthe-inte fmolpdeirnagt.u Ore pstuipcearlc Toencdhuncitqivuiteys and protein folding. Optical Techniques for Solid-State Materials Characterizaftoiro Sn oplriodv-iSdteast ed eMtaailteedr idaless cCrihpatrioanctse orfi zbaatsiiocn a pnrdo avdidveasn dceedta iled descriptions of basic and advanced optical techniques commonly used to stuodpyt imcaalt teerciahlns,i qfruoems c tohme msimonpllye utsoe dth teo c sotmudpyl emx.a Ttehreia blso, ofrko m the simple to the complex. The book explains how to use these techniques to aecxqpulairien,s ahnoawly ztoe, uasned t hinetseer pterceht ndiaqtua efso rto g aaicnqiunigre i,n asnigahlytz ien, taon d interpret data for gaining insight into material properties. material properties. With chapters written by pioneering expWerittsh icnh vaaprtieoruss w orpittticeanl bteyc phinoinqeueersi,n tgh eex tpeexrtt sfi risnt vparroioviudse os ptical techniques, the text first provides background on light–matter interactionsb, saecmkgircoounnddu cotno rlsi,g ahnt–dm maetttaelrs ibneteforarcet dioisncsu, ssseimngic loinnedaurc, ttoimrse, -and metals before discussing linear, time- integrated optical experiments for measuirnitnegg rbaatseidc ompattiecraila el xppreorpimeretinetss, sfourc hm aesa sFuoruinrige rb tarsaicn smfoartmer ial properties, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, photoluminescencien, faranrde dR sapmeacntr oscscaottpeyr,i npgh.o Ttohleu mneinxte ssceecnticoen, abnedg iRnsa mwiatnh sac attering. The next section begins with a description of ultrashort pulse generationd easncdri pctairornie ro fd uynltaramshicosr itn p suelmsei cgoennderuacttioorns aanndd cmarertiaelrs .d Tyhnea mics in semiconductors and metals. The book then discusses time-resolved opticalb toeockh nthiqeune ds,i sscuucshs eass tpimume-pr–esporlovbeed soppetcitcraols tceocphyn, itqeuraehs,e srutzc h as pump–probe spectroscopy, terahertz spectroscopy, and magneto-optical spectrsopseccotproy.s cTohpey ,s aunbdse mquaegnnte tsoec-toipotni cdael sscpreibcterso sspcoatpiya.l lTy hrees soulvbesdeq uent section describes spatially resolved optical spectroscopy, including conventioonpatli coapl tsipcaelc tmroicsrcoospcyo, piny calnuddi mngi ccroon-voepntitcioaln aanl dop nteicaarl- fimeilcdr oscopy and micro-optical and near-field scanning techniques. The book concludsecsa wnnitihn ga nte ocvhenrivqiueews .o Tf hmeo broe oakd vcaonncceludd, eesm werigthin agn o opvteicravli ew of more advanced, emerging optical techniques, such as ultrafast x-ray and electetrcohnn idqiuffersa,c stuiocnh, ausl turaltfraasfta spth xo-troaeym ainsdsi oenle cstpreocntr doisfcforapcyt,i aonnd, ultrafast photoemission spectroscopy, and time-resolved optical microscopy. time-resolved optical microscopy. As optical techniques are among the firstA asp oppliteidca wl hteecnh nstiuqduyeisn agr en eawm osynsgt etmhes fiwristth a npopvlieeld p wrohpeenr tsiteus,d ying new systems with novel properties, the information presented in this comprehtheen sinivfeo rrmefeartieonnc ep wreislel notneldy ignr othwi si nc oimmpporerhtaenncseiv. eB rye fseurpepnlcyei nwgi ll only grow in importance. By supplying clear, detailed explanations of these techncilqeaure, sd, ethtaei lbedoo ekx pelnaanbalteiso nress oeaf rtchheesres tteoc hrenaidqiulye si,m thpele bmoeonkt enables researchers to readily implement Edited by Edited by them and acquire new insights into the mtahteemria lasn tdh eayc qsutuirdey n. ew insights into the materials they study. Rohit P. PrasankRuomhairt P. Prasankumar Antoinette J. TayAlonrtoinette J. Taylor K10737 K10737 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487 Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487 711 Third Avenue 711 Third Avenue an informa business New York, NY 10017 an informa business New York, NY 10017 www.crcpress.com 2 Park Square, Milton Parkwww.crcpress.com 2 Park Square, Milton Park Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK www.crcpress.com www.crcpress.com K10737_Cover_mech.indd 1 K10737_Cover_mech.indd 1 5/13/11 1:54 PM 5/13/11 1:54 PM Optical techniques sOliD-state FOR MateRials chaRacteRiZatiOn Optical techniques sOliD-state FOR MateRials chaRacteRiZatiOn Edited by Rohit P. Prasankumar Antoinette J. Taylor Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Cover Image: Volker Steger CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20110705 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-1437-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material repro- duced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifica- tion and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To Anuradha (Rohit P. Prasankumar) CONTENTS Preface ix Acknowledgments xiii Editors xv Contributors xvii List of Abbreviations xxi Part I Background 1 Light–Matter Interactions 3 Willie J. Padilla 2 Semiconductors and Their Nanostructures 39 Jeffrey Davis and Chennupati Jagadish 3 The Optical Properties of Metals: From Wideband to Narrowband Materials 79 Richard D. Averitt Part II LInear oPtIcaL SPectroScoPy 4 Methods for Obtaining the Optical Constants of a Material 111 Hidekazu Okamura 5 Methods for Obtaining the Optical Response after CW Excitation 151 Sajan Saini 6 Raman Scattering as a Tool for Studying Complex Materials 193 S. Lance Cooper, Peter Abbamonte, Nadya Mason, C. S. Snow, Minjung Kim, Harini Barath, John F. Karpus, Cesar E. Chialvo, James P. Reed, Young-Il Joe, Xiaoqian Chen, Diego Casa, and Y. Gan Part III tIme-reSoLved oPtIcaL SPectroScoPy 7 Ultrashort Pulse Generation and Measurement 237 Andrew Kowalevicz 8 Carrier Dynamics in Bulk Semiconductors and Metals after Ultrashort Pulse Excitation 291 Jure Demsar and Thomas Dekorsy 9 Ultrafast Pump–Probe Spectroscopy 329 David J. Hilton vii vIII Contents 10 Transient Four-Wave Mixing 371 Steven T. Cundiff 11 Time-Domain and Ultrafast Terahertz Spectroscopy 397 Robert A. Kaindl 12 Time-Resolved Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 443 Marc Achermann 13 Time-Resolved Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy 467 Jigang Wang 14 Time-Resolved Raman Scattering 507 Daniele Fausti and Paul H.M. van Loosdrecht Part Iv SPatIaLLy-reSoLved oPtIcaL SPectroScoPy 15 Microscopy 533 Alexander Neumann, Yuliya Kuznetsova, and Steven R.J. Brueck 16 Micro-Optical Techniques 575 Kartik Srinivasan, Matthew T. Rakher, and Marcelo Davanço 17 Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy 619 Ben Mangum, Eyal Shafran, Jessica Johnston, and Jordan Gerton Part v recent deveLoPmentS 18 Recent Developments in Spatially and Temporally Resolved Optical Characterization of Solid-State Materials 663 Rohit P. Prasankumar and Antoinette J. Taylor PREFACE You can’t study the darkness by flooding it with light. Edward Abbey Or can you? From the earliest beginnings of humankind, darkness has evoked emotions of fear and uncertainty in nearly all of us. The control of fire and invention of the light bulb helped alleviate these feelings, but to this day, when entering a dark room, we usually respond by turning on the light. This reaction speaks to the primacy of vision among our senses, per- haps because we can immediately obtain a massive amount of information by simply open- ing our eyes and looking at the world around us. In much the same manner, one can rapidly learn a lot about a material by simply shining light on it. Accordingly, it is not surprising that optics has been used to study both natural and man-made phenomena from the beginning of recorded history. In fact, light is virtually an ideal tool for studying nearly any material or phenomenon, as optical techniques have several notable advantages over other methods. Paramount is their noncontact and nondestructive nature, along with the ability to broadly tune from x-ray to terahertz (THz) frequencies, generate attosecond (10−18 s) duration pulses, and probe nanoscale dimensions (<10 nm). Therefore, by using one or more of the myriad optical techniques that have been developed over the last century for characterizing materials, substantial insight into phenomena ranging from high-temperature superconductivity to protein folding can be obtained. The purpose of this book is thus to describe both basic and advanced experimental opti- cal techniques that are commonly used to study materials. To the best of our knowledge, a single volume that describes the essential experimental techniques for optically character- izing materials does not exist, and relatively few references discuss any of these methods in detail. This then presents an opportunity to address these issues by describing established optical experiments in the same volume as more recently developed temporally and spatially resolved methods. More specifically, we aim to describe these techniques in enough detail for researchers with different levels of experience to build and/or use a working setup, acquire data on both simple and complex materials, and analyze and interpret these data to obtain insight into fundamental material properties with minimal reliance on other sources. To accomplish this, we solicited contributions from experts who have pioneered these tech- niques and extensively applied them to characterize complex materials in their own labora- tories. Although we have attempted to include the most widely known optical techniques for characterizing materials, this book is not meant to be exhaustive; several important methods have undoubtedly been left out, either inadvertently or due to space limitations. In addition, although our intention is to describe each of these techniques in extensive detail as mentioned ix