Optical Interconnects for Data Centers Related titles OpticalFiberTelecommunicationsVolumeVIA,6thed,AcademicPress (ISBN978-0-12-396958-3) PolymerOpticalFibres (ISBN978-0-08-100039-7) Subseaopticsandimaging (ISBN978-0-85709-341-7) Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials: Number 90 Optical Interconnects for Data Centers Edited by Tolga Tekin Richard Pitwon Andreas Ha˚kansson Nikos Pleros AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier TheOfficers’MessBusinessCentre,RoystonRoad,Duxford,CB224QH,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyright©2017ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedin anyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher. PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(144)(0)1865843830;fax(144)(0)1865853333; email:permissions@elsevier.com.Alternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlineby visitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial. Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsor propertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor operationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein. Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independentverification ofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade. BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ISBN:978-0-08-100512-5(print) ISBN:978-0-08-100513-2(online) ForinformationonallWoodheadPublishing visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com Publisher:MatthewDeans AcquisitionEditor:KaylaDosSantos EditorialProjectManager:AlexWhite ProductionProjectManager:DebasishGhosh CoverDesigner:MariaInesCruz TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India Contents Listofcontributors ix Biography xiii Preface xv Woodheadpublishingseriesinelectronic andopticalmaterials xvii Part I Introduction 1 Datacenterarchitectures 3 C.DeCusatis 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Datacenterenvironmentconsiderations 4 1.3 Datacenterclassifications 9 1.4 Applicationarchitectures 10 1.5 Clouddatacenterarchitectures 14 1.6 Physicalarchitecture 17 1.7 Datacenterdesignconsiderations 21 1.8 Nextgenerationdatacenterarchitectures 32 1.9 Opticalinterconnectsfordatacenters 36 References 39 2 Opticalinterconnects:fundamentals 43 D.TsiokosandG.T.Kanellos 2.1 Opticalinterconnects: thedriverbehindfuturedatacenters 43 2.2 Classesofopticalinterconnectsindatacenters 46 2.3 Currentstatusandfuturetrendsofopticalinterconnectssystems 51 2.4 Overviewofphotonickeyenablingtechnologies 56 2.5 Summaryandpracticalconclusions 66 References 67 3 Keyrequirementsforopticalinterconnectswithindatacenters 75 M.Duranton,D.DutoitandS.Menezo 3.1 Anexplosionofdata 75 3.2 Whataredatacenters? 78 3.3 Datacommunicationrequirements 82 3.4 Opticalinterconnect:asolutiontoenergyandbandwidth requirements? 83 vi Contents 3.5 Conclusion 90 References 92 Part II Materials and Components 4 Indiumphosphide(InP)foropticalinterconnects 97 M.Lebby,S.Ristic,N.CalabrettaandR.Stabile 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 InPphotonicintegrationplatforms 98 4.3 State-of-the-artinInPphotonicintegratedcircuits(PICs) fordatacenters 100 4.4 Futuretrends 114 References 118 5 Photoniccrystalcavitiesforopticalinterconnects 121 LiamO’Faolain 5.1 Photoniccrystalbackground 121 5.2 Massproduction 127 5.3 Lightemission 131 5.4 Thefibercouplingproblemanditssolution 137 5.5 Opticalmodulation 142 5.6 Photo-detection 149 5.7 Outlook 152 References 153 6 Typesandperformanceofhighperformingmulti-mode polymerwaveguidesforopticalinterconnects 157 M.SinghandK.Weidner 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Polynorbornene 159 6.3 Silicones 163 6.4 Connectorsandcoupling 166 6.5 Conclusions 169 References 169 7 Designandfabricationofmultimodepolymerwaveguides foropticalinterconnects 171 T.IshigureandM.Immonen 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Structureofmultimodepolymeropticalwaveguide 172 7.3 Fabricationmethod 174 7.4 Characterization 179 7.5 PolymeropticalwaveguidecircuitforopticalPCB 192 7.6 Summary 193 References 194 Contents vii 8 Siliconphotonicsformulti-modetransmission 197 K.Kurata,Y.Suzuki,M.TokushimaandK.Takemura 8.1 Expectationsforoptical interconnection 197 8.2 Multi-modewiringforsiliconphotonicstechnology 198 8.3 Chip-scalesiliconphotonicstransceiver“opticalI/Ocore” 201 8.4 Evaluation 216 8.5 Application 219 References 221 9 Scalablethree-dimensionalopticalinterconnectsfordatacenters 223 R.Morris,A.K.KodiandA.Louri 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Photonicandthree-dimensionalinterconnects 224 9.3 Opticalarchitecture:three-dimensional-NoC 225 9.4 Reconfiguration 232 9.5 Performanceevaluation 236 9.6 Conclusionsandfuturedirections 244 References 244 10 Electronicdrivers/TIAsforopticalinterconnects 247 J.BauwelinckandX.Yin 10.1 Co-designandco-simulationofelectronicsandphotonics 250 10.2 Electronic drivers 252 10.3 Transimpedanceamplifiers 256 References 262 Part III Circuit Boards 11 Electrical andphotonicoff-chipinterconnectionandsystem integration 265 M.Zia,C.Wan,Y.ZhangandM.Bakir 11.1 Introduction 265 11.2 Emergingelectrical andphotonicinterconnects 267 11.3 Large-scaleinterconnectedsystemusinga“siliconbridging” concept 272 11.4 Conclusion 282 References 283 12 Electro-opticalcircuitboardswithsingle-ormulti-modeoptical interconnects 287 L.Brusberg,M.ImmonenandT.Lamprecht 12.1 Motivationandclassificationofopticalinterconnects attheboardlevel 287 12.2 Manufacturingofintegratedplanarpolymerwaveguides 289 12.3 IntegratedglasswaveguidebasedEOCBs 297 viii Contents 12.4 Massproductionandreliability 304 References 305 13 Internationalandindustrialstandardizationofopticalcircuit boardtechnologies 309 R.Pitwon,M.Immonen,J.Wu,L.Brusberg,H.Itoh,T.Shioda, S.Dorresteiner,H.J.Yan,H.Schro¨der,D.ManessisP.Schneider andK.Wang 13.1 Introduction 309 13.2 IndustrialmanufacturingprocessesforOPCBs 312 13.3 International standardizationofOPCBs 324 13.4 OPCBmeasurement 326 13.5 Conclusion 339 References 340 14 Requirementsforprocessautomationofopticalinterconnect technologies 343 I.PiacentiniandT.Vahrenkamp 14.1 Anintroductionandalistofissues 343 14.2 Positionalaccuracy andthedebateonpassive/activealignment 351 14.3 Machine“ingredients”andmachinetechnologies 354 14.4 Machinevision 363 14.5 TheroleofsoftwareandHMIintheoptimizationofnewprocesses 367 14.6 Testandmeasurementinstrumentation 369 14.7 Designforautomatedassembly/testingandstandardization 370 14.8 Automatedtesting 371 14.9 Conclusions 371 References 372 Part IV Using Optical Interconnects to Improve Network Architectures in Data Centers 15 Theroleofopticalinterconnectsinthedesignofdatacenter architectures 375 A.Siokis,K.ChristodoulopoulosandE.Varvarigos 15.1 Introduction 375 15.2 Overviewofopticalinterconnectstechnologies 376 15.3 Applicationsofopticalinterconnectsintheindividuallayers ofthepackaginghierarchy 376 15.4 On-opticalprintedcircuitboards(OPCB)layoutstrategies 378 15.5 Conclusion 390 Acknowledgments 390 References 391 Index 395 List of contributors M.Bakir GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,Atlanta,GA,UnitedStates J.Bauwelinck GhentUniversity-iMinds-imec,Ghent,Belgium L. Brusberg Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (IZM), Berlin,Germany N.Calabretta EindhovenUniversityofTechnology,Eindhoven,TheNetherlands K. Christodoulopoulos University of Patras, Patras, Greece; Computer Technology InstituteandPress(cid:1)DiophantusPatras,Greece C.DeCusatis MaristCollege,Poughkeepsie,NY,UnitedStates S.Dorresteiner TEConnectivity,s’Hertogenbosch,TheNetherlands M. Duranton Commissariat a` l’e´nergie atomique et aux e´nergies alternatives, Gif- sur-YvetteCedex,France D. Dutoit Commissariat a` l’e´nergie atomique et aux e´nergies alternatives, GrenobleCedex,France M. Immonen Meadville Aspocomp International Limited, TTM Technologies, Inc.,Salo,Finland; TTMTechnologiesInc.TurkuArea,Finland T.Ishigure KeioUniversity,Yokohama,Japan H.Itoh IndustrialTechnologyCenterofTochigiPrefecture,Tochigi,Japan G.T.Kanellos AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki,Thessaloniki,Greece; Centerfor ResearchandTechnologyHellas,Thessaloniki,Greece A.K.Kodi OhioUniversity,Athens,OH,UnitedStates K. Kurata Photonics Electronics Technology Research Association (PETRA), Tsukuba,Japan