NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO SAMUEL GLASSTONE & ALEXANOER SESONSKE Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V. © 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall,lnc. in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 4th edition 1994 AII rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, ar by an information starage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Glasstone, Samuel, 1897- Nuclear reactor engineering / Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske. - 4th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Reactor design basics - v. 2. Reactor systems engineering. ISBN 978-1-4613-5866-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-2083-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2083-2 1. Nuclear reactors. 1. Sesonske, Alexander, 1921- . II. Title. TK9202.G55 1994 621.48'31-dc20 94-16575 CIP Contents PREFACE xiv CHAPTER 8 THE SYSTEMS CONCEPT, DESIGN DECISIONS, AND INFORMATION TOOLS 487 INTRODUCTION 487 SYSTEMS 488 Introduction, 488; PWR Nuclear Steam Supply System, 489. THE COMPUTER As A DECISION TOOL 490 System Modeling, 490; System Interactions, 490; Design Interactions and Intersystem Dependencies, 491; Sensitivity Analysis and Design Parameter Interactions, 491; Feedback, 491; Optimization, 492; Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence, 493; Computer Code Sources, 494. v vi Contents INFORMATION As A DECISION TOOL 495 Introduction, 495; Abstracts, 496; Nonarchival Literature Sources, 496; Data Centers, 497; Data Access Networks, 498; Information Age Challenges, 498. CHAPTER 9 ENERGY TRANSPORT 501 INTRODUCTION 501 The Role of Energy Transport in Reactor Design, 501; Thermodynamic Viewpoint, 502; Design Methods, 503. HEAT SOURCES IN REACTOR SYSTEMS 503 Fission Energy, 503; Spatial Distribution of Energy Sources in Reactor Core, 505; Average and Maximum Power in Single Fuel Channel, 507; Power and Flux Flattening, 508; Other Heat Sources, 509. HEAT-TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES 509 Introduction, 509; Conduction of Heat, 509; Convection of Heat, 511; Conduction with Convection Boundary Conditions, 512; Radiation Heat Transfer, 515; Systems with Internal Heat Sources, 517; Conduction in Irregular Geometries, 529; Transient Heat Conduction, 530; Transient Heat Transfer, 534. HEAT TRANSFER TO ORDINARY FLUIDS 535 Introduction, 535; Laminar and Turbulent Flow, 535; Heat-Transfer Coefficients of Ordinary Fluids, 539; Heat-Transfer Coefficients of Gases, 541. HEAT TRANSFER TO LIQUID METALS 541 Introduction, 541; Heat Transfer in Reactor Rod Bundles, 543. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER 543 Pool Boiling, 543; Flow Boiling, 546; Boiling Crisis, 548; Prediction of Burnout Conditions, 549; Boiling Heat-Transfer Coefficients, 550. CORE FLUID FLOW 552 Introduction, 552; Flow Pressure Drop, 552; Pressure Drop in Turbulent Flow, 554; Velocity Head Losses, Contents vii 556; Two-Phase Flow, 558; Two-Phase Pressure Drop, 558; Limiting Flow with Compressible Fluids, 561; Natural Circulation Cooling, 562. 564 SUBCHANNEL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM CODES 565 CORE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS General Considerations, 565; Peaking and Hot-Channel Factors, 566; Idealized Axial Temperature Distributions, 567; Heat-Flux-Related Limitations in Pressurized-Water Reactors, 573; Factors and Subfactors, 576; Enthalpy Rise Hot-Channel Factor, 578; Statistical Core Design Techniques, 580; Boiling-Water Reactors, 581; Gas-Cooled Reactors, 583; Fast Liquid-Metal-Cooled Reactors, 584. CHAPTER 10 REACTOR FUEL MANAGEMENT AND ENERGY COST CONSIDERATIONS 589 INTRODUCTION 589 PRE-REACTOR FUEL OPERATIONS 590 Production, 590; Isotopic Enrichment, 590; Isotopic Feed Material and Separative Work Requirements, 591; Fabrication of Fuel Assemblies, 594. IN-CORE MANAGEMENT 594 Introduction, 594; Fuel Burnup, 595; Staggered Refueling, 596; Fuel Management Terminology, 598. PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT 598 The Initial PWR Core and Subsequent Reload Patterns, 598; Burnable Absorber Rods, 602; PWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 603; The Fuel Reload Design Process, 604; Levels of Core Modeling, 604; Neutronic Analysis Methods, 605; Reload Core Pattern Design Considerations, 605; Automation and Optimization, 607; The Haling Principle, 607. BOILING WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT 608 Introduction, 608; Control Cell Core, 610; BWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 610; BWR Spectral Shift Operation, 611; BWR Core Modeling Methods, 611. viii Contents NUCLEAR FUEL UTILIZATION 612 Introduction, 612; The Conversion Ratio, 613; The Breeding Ratio, 615; Thorium Utilization, 618; Plutonium Utilization, 619; Proliferation Risk, 620. NUCLEAR ENERGY COSTS 620 Introduction, 620; Time Value of Money, 621; Capital Costs, 623; Operation and Maintenance Costs, 625; Fuel Costs, 625; Electric Power Generation Costs, 626; Role of Rate Regulation, 627. NUCLEAR MATERIAL SAFEGUARDS 628 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY SAFETY 629 Introduction, 629; Design Approaches and Analysis, 629. CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR POWER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 632 INTRODUCTION 632 Environmental Concerns, 632; Emissions from Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, 633; The Greenhouse Effect, 634; Overview of Nuclear Power Effects, 634. RADIATION EXPOSURE P A THW A YS 635 Introduction, 635; Regulatory Bases for Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Levels "As Low As Is Reasonably Achievable," 638. THE SPENT-FuEL MANAGEMENT CHALLENGE 639 ON-SITE SPENT-FuEL STORAGE 640 Introduction, 640; Spent-Fuel Logistics, 640; Pool Storage Capacity Enhancement, 641. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPENT FUEL 642 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OPTIONS 644 Introduction, 644; Retrievable Storage, 645; Permanent Disposal, 646. MIGRATION OF WASTE RADIONUCLIDES 646 Lessons from the Oklo Reactor Waste, 648. Contents ix THE REPROCESSING OPTION 648 Introduction, 648; Head-End Treatment, 649; Solvent-Extraction Separation Processes, 650; Other Separation Processes, 654; Fuel Reprocessing Waste Management, 656; Characteristics of Solidified High-Level Waste, 657. REACTOR RADW ASTE MANAGEMENT 659 Sources of Radioactivity, 659; Reactor Radwaste Systems, 660; Pressurized-Water Reactors, 661; Boiling-Water Reactors, 663. WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT 663 Condenser Cooling Requirements, 663; Regulation of Thermal Discharges, 666; Treatment of Thermal Discharge, 666. CHAPTER 12 NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFETY AND REGULATION 673 INTRODUCTION 673 Technological Risk and Public Perception, 673; Public Acceptance of Nuclear Power Plants, 674; Defense in Depth, 675. ACCIDENT PREVENTION 675 Introduction, 675; Quality Assurance: Codes and Standards, 676; Redundancy and Diversity, 677; Inherent Reactor Stability, 678; Reactor Protection System, 678; Reactor Trip Signals, 680; Shutdown Cooling, 680. ENGINEERED SAFETY FEATURES 681 Introduction, 681; The Emergency Core-Cooling System, 682; Containment Systems, 685. ABNORMAL EVENT ANALYSIS 691 Categories of Abnormal Events, 691; Events of Moderate Frequency, 693; Events of Low Probability, 696. LICENSING DESIGN BASIS EVALUATION 698 Control Element Ejection, 698; Spent-Fuel Handling Accident, 699; Loss-of-Coolant Accident, 699; Emergency Core-Cooling Criteria, 703. x Contents SEVERE ACCIDENTS 705 PWR Sequences, 706; BWR Sequences, 707. THE SOURCE TERM 707 Introduction, 707; Barriers to the Escape of Radioactivity, 708; Radionuclide Importance Factors, 708; Fission Product Transport Overview, 708; Fission Product Chemistry, 709; Fine Particle Dynamics, 712; Aerosols, 713; Explosions, 714. SAFETY MODELING METHODS 715 Introduction, 715; Licensing "Evaluation" Models, 716; System Modeling Methods, 717; Representative Best Estimate System Modeling Codes, 720; Modeling of Fluid and Structure Interactions, 721; Severe Accident Modeling, 721. SITING REQUIREMENTS 723 Introduction, 723; Radiological Criteria of Site Acceptability, 723; Radiation Dose Calculations, 725; Emergency Response Planning, 730; Seismic Design Criteria, 730; Other Natural Events, 731. ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE AND ANALYSIS 732 Introduction, 732; The Three Mile Island Accident, 732; Impact of the Three Mile Island Accident, 733; Chernobyl, 734; Impact of the Chernobyl Accident, 737. SEVERE ACCIDENT MANAGEMENT 738 Introduction, 738; Information and Analysis, 738; Supporting Instrumentation, 739; Accident Management Strategy Development, 739; Equipment Modification and Personnel Training, 739. RELIABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT 739 Introduction, 739; Deterministic and Probabilistic Analysis, 740; Elementary Binary State Concepts, 741; Fault Tree Analysis, 743; Quantitative Fault Tree Analysis, 744; Event Trees, 745; Computer Modeling, 747; Risk Assessment Studies, 748. LICENSING AND REGULATION OF NUCLEAR PLANTS 750 Introduction, 750; Design Certification, 751; Early Site Permit, 751; Combined Construction and Operating License, 752; State-Level Regulation, 752. Contents xi NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFEGUARDS 753 Introduction, 753; Protection against Sabotage, 753. CHAPTER 13 POWER REACTOR SYSTEMS 759 INTRODUCTION 759 PRESENT PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS 760 Introduction, 760; Reactor Vessel and Core, 760; Control and Safety Systems, 765; Coolant Circulation and Steam Generating Systems, 766. EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS 769 Introduction, 769; Design Features, 770. PRESENT BOILING-WATER REACTORS 774 Introduction, 774; Core and Vessel, 776; Coolant Recirculation System, 778; Control System, 779; Feedwater Temperature and Fuel Cycle Length, 781. EVOLUTIONARY BOILING-WATER REACTORS 781 Introduction, 781; System Features, 783; Standardization and Certification, 783. HEAVY -W A TER-MODERATED REACTORS 783 Introduction, 783; Design Specifications and Core Features, 785; Heat Removal, 785; Control System, 788; Safety Features, 789; The Evolutionary CANDU 3,789. CHAPTER 14 PLANT OPERATIONS 791 INTRODUCTION 791 PLANT OPERATIONAL STRATEGY 792 Generation Dispatching, 792; Operating Cycle Length and Outage Management, 792. PLANT CONTROL 793 Normal Operational Maneuvers, 793; The Control Room, 797.